5 . ^ • / 2- 


rf  ft* 

PRINCETON,  N.  J. 


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Purchased  by  the  Hamill  Missionary  Fund. 


Division 


Section 


INDIA 

AND 

DAILY  LIFE  IN  BENGAL 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016 


https://archive.org/details/indiadailylifein00grif_0 


Schools  of  low-cast c people  assembled  for  Christmas  prise-giving,  Santipore 


INDIA 

AND 


DAILY  LIFE  IN  BENGAL 


®y 

REV.  Z.  F.  GRIFFIN,  B.  D. 

FIFTEEN  YEARS  A MISSIONARY 
IN  INDIA 


THIRD  EDITION 


AMERICAN  BAPTIST  PUBLICATION  SOCIETY 

PHILADELPHIA 

BOSTON  CHICAGO  ST.  LOUIS 
TORONTO,  CAN. 


Copyright  1912  by 
Z.  F.  GRIFFIN 


Published  February,  1912 


PREFACE 


I am  issuing  this  third  edition  because  the  second  edi- 
tion is  exhausted,  and  there  seems  to  be  a demand 
for  such  a book.  There  are  more  pages  in  this  edi- 
tion than  in  the  second.  I have  given  the  latest  re- 
ports on  the  revenue  of  the  country,  and  also  the  con- 
stitution of  the  new  Legislative  Council  of  the  viceroy, 
and  the  latest  revised  Protestant  missionary  statistics. 

I have  briefly  discussed  British  rule  in  India  as  I 
have  seen  it  and  know  it.  During  our  last  term  of 
service  the  unrest  was  at  its  height,  and  we  were  in 
the  very  storm-center  of  the  cyclone.  This  is  referred 
to  from  the  standpoint  from  which  I have  viewed  it. 
I have  tried  to  present  the  facts  and  conditions  in  a 
plain,  simple  manner,  so  that  any  one  can  understand 
the  situation  as  far  as  possible  without  actually  being 
on  the  ground. 

The  book  was  issued  in  the  first  place  to  answer 
questions  regarding  that  great  country,  which  every 
writer  consulted  took  for  granted  that  the  people  knew, 
but  which,  as  a matter  of  fact,  in  general  they  very 
little  understood.  Simple  questions  about  their  build- 
ings, occupations,  mode  of  farming,  productions,  char- 
acter of  the  natives,  religions,  methods  of  mission 


Preface 


work,  obstacles,  etc.,  are  answered  in  a concise  but 
clear  way. 

I am  indebted  to  Benjamin  Aitken,  Esq.,  of  Poonah, 
India,  for  the  facts  concerning  the  new  legislative 
council  of  the  viceroy,  and  to  Rev.  Geo.  Henderson, 
of  Calcutta,  for  the  revised  missionary  statistics.  My 
historical  facts  were  gathered  from  Hunter,  Murray, 
Grant,  Sherring,  and  others. 

The  cuts,  with  two  or  three  exceptions,  are  from  my 
own  negatives. 

° Z.  F.  GRIFFIN. 


Keuka  Park,  N.  Y.,  January  i,  1912. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  Historical  Outline 9 

II.  British  Rule  in  India 25 

III.  Political  Divisions  34 

IV.  Unrest  in  India 47 

V.  European  Life  in  Bengal 54 

VI.  Roads,  Highways,  and  Waterways  ...  64 

VII.  Architecture 76 

VIII.  Productions  83 

IX.  Climate 88 

X.  Scenery  and  Sights 92 

XI.  Some  Pests  of  India 103 

XII.  Some  Characteristics  112 

XIII.  Occupations 126 

XIV.  A Glance  at  Hinduism 163 

XV.  History  of  Protestant  Missions 179 

XVI.  Mission  Work  and  How  Carried  On.  . 187 

XVII.  The  Prospect  for  Success 208 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 

Schools  of  low-caste  people  assembled  for  Christ- 
mas prize-giving,  Santipore ....  Frontispiece 

A Bengal  rural  village 51 

A Bengal  bazaar  {business  street) 5/ 

Tenting  in  Bengal 64 

Off  for  cold-season  work  in  tents  or  bungalows . . 64 

Bringing  in  rice  sheaves  from  the  field 66 

Bringing  rice  to  market 66 

A typical  house  of  the  wealthy  class,  Bengal 76 

A temple  of  Juggernath 76 

Building  a house  for  the  poorer  class 78 

The  Taj  Mahal,  Agra 78 

A pilgrim  preparing  his  cakes  by  the  roadside . ...  86 

Calcutta  coolies 86 

Procuresses  near  Kali’s  temple,  Calcutta 94 

Devotees  bathing  in  the  Ganges,  Calcutta 94 

A typical  Bengal  tank 99 

Mission  boat 99 

Traveling  in  the  mountains.  A dandy 102 

One  of  the  sources  of  the  Ganges,  Himalaya 

Mountains 102 


List  of  Illustrations 


PAGB 

A Bengal  barber  who  has  found  a job 109 

A sacred  bull , Mohadabe 109 

Bringing  pottery  to  market 131 

The  boy  who  herds  cattle 13 1 b 

Washermen  in  the  foreground;  a water-carrier  on 

the  left 149 

One  way  of  crossing  rivers,  Bengal 149 

A sweeper 134 

Burning  the  dead,  Benares 134 

On  the  banks  of  the  Ganges,  Benares;  stone  god, 

Mohadabe  164 

Temples  on  the  banks  of  the  Ganges,  Benares. . . . 164 

A sadu,  “ holy  man,”  spends  his  life  wandering 

from  place  to  place 170 

A devotee,  arms  rigid 170 

Juggernath,  with  Jvis  sister  and  brother,  seated  on 

his  car 172 

A pilgrimage  by  prostrations 175 

A “ holy  man  ” on  a bed  of  spikes 175 

Handling  logs  for  industrial-school  work,  Santi- 

pore,  Bengal 183 

Thatching  a bungalow 195 

A typical  sawmill 19 5 

Zenana  teachers  starting  for  work 197 


INDIA 

AND 

DAILY  LIFE  IN  BENGAL 


CHAPTER  I 

An  Outline  of  the  History  from  the  Time  of  the  Rig - 
Veda  to  the  Beginning  of  the  Reign  of  Queen 
Victoria  as  Empress  of  India 

THE  early  home  of  the  Aryans  was  no  doubt 
somewhere  in  central  Asia.  In  course  of  time 
the  country  in  which  they  lived  became  too 
small  for  their  numerous  offspring,  and  ad- 
venturous bands  left  their  homes  in  quest  of  food  or 
plunder  or  pastures  new.  These  marauding  bands 
went  in  different  directions,  farther  and  farther  from 
the  old  home  land.  Some  of  them  settled  in  Persia; 
some  of  them  founded  the  Greek  and  Italic  nations; 
some  the  Celtic  and  Teutonic  races;  and  others  the 
Slavs  of  Europe.  Others  traveled  more  eastward  and 
southward,  and  making  their  way  through  mountain 
passes,  settled  in  India.  Here  they  found  rich  pastures 
for  their  flocks  and  herds,  and  fertile  land  which  they 
began  to  cultivate.  But  they  also  found  that  their 
right  to  these  lands  and  pastures  was  disputed ; for 
others  had  possession  of  them,  and  had  occupied  them 
for  centuries  before  the  Aryans  entered  the  Punjab. 
Those  who  had  possession  were  the  aborigines  of  the 

9 


10 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


country,  who  were  by  no  means  ready  to  relinquish 
their  claim.  For  the  Aryans  to  gain  possession,  there- 
fore, meant  war  and  conquest ; but,  little  by  little,  terri- 
tory was  acquired,  and  step  by  step  the  conquerors 
came  farther  south  and  east. 

It  was  while  they  were  watching  their  flocks  and 
cultivating  their  land  in  the  Punjab,  that  they  began 
the  composition  of  the  Rig-Veda.  This  contains  the 
most  ancient  records  of  the  Aryan  family,  and  is  the 
source  of  most  of  our  information  of  this  remote 
period,  extending  as  it  does  from  2000  B.  C.  to  1400 
B.  C.  This  is  called  by  historians  the  Vedic  period. 
This  book  is  really  hymns  addressed  to  nature,  which 
the  Aryans  worshiped;  but  in  the  hymns  there  are  so 
many  allusions  to  domestic  and  social  life,  wars,  etc., 
that  they  form  a history  of  the  times  in  which  they 
were  composed.  We  must  bear  in  mind  that  the 
hymns  were  only  composed  and  sung  at  this  remote 
period,  but  not  written.  They  were  sung,  and  handed 
down  from  father  to  son,  probably  as  Homer  was  by 
the  Greek  rhapsodists.  It  was  not  until  the  following 
age,  or  what  some  historians  style  the  Epic  age,  that 
these  were  arranged  and  compiled. 

In  the  Vedic  age  the  Hindus  had  very  few  of  the 
customs  and  characteristics  which  they  have  at  the 
present  time.  This  was  a patriarchal  age.  In  their 
simple  devotions  the  head  of  the  family  was  also  the 
priest  of  the  family,  and  his  home  was  his  temple.  The 
head  of  the  family  was  also  a warrior  as  well  as  a cul- 
tivator and  herdsman.  Caste  had  not  yet  made  its  ap- 
pearance; girls  had  some  choice  in  the  selection  of 


Historical  Outline 


II 


their  husbands ; the  cruel  custom  of  burning  the  widows 
on  the  funeral  pyre  of  the  dead  husband  was  unknown ; 
and  wife  and  husband  worked  together  in  social 
equality.  The  flesh  of  animals,  together  with  barley 
and  wheat,  milk  and  butter,  seems  to  have  constituted 
their  simple  diet.  There  can  be  no  time  fixed  upon 
which  we  can  put  our  finger  and  say,  “ At  this  date 
things  began  to  change.”  The  change  was  gradual 
but  sure ; for  after  six  hundred  years  we  find  that  the 
people  had  settled  in  the  valleys  of  the  Ganges  and 
Jamna  rivers,  and  were  performing  pompous  and 
solemn  religious  rites,  which  sometimes,  in  the  case  of 
royal  sacrifices,  lasted  for  years.  This  period  is  called 
by  historians  the  Epic  age.  Now  we  find  professional 
priests  have  come  on  the  stage,  who  give  discourses  on 
the  texts  of  the  Vedas,  and  who  attempt  to  explain 
their  hidden  meaning.  The  writings  of  the  Hindus, 
called  the  Brahmanas,  are  speculations  and  explana- 
tions concerning  the  Vedas  by  generations  of  priests. 

As  these  kingdoms  increased  in  territory  and  popu- 
lation, they  also  made  advancement  in  education  and 
in  the  administration  of  their  government.  Men  duly 
appointed  collected  taxes,  administered  justice,  and 
led  armies  to  battle  either  against  the  aborigines  or 
against  neighboring  kingdoms  of  the  Aryan  family. 
Members  of  kings’  households  learned  the  art  of  shoot- 
ing with  bow  and  arrow,  and  riding  in  war  chariots, 
while  priests  multiplied  religious  rites  and  observances. 
It  was  during  this  period  that  the  great  Hindu  epic, 
Mahabharata,  was  begun.  It  was  not  written  as  we 
have  it  now,  for  portions  of  it  have  been  lost,  and  later 


12 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


writers  have  attempted  to  supply  the  deficiency,  or 
alter  or  distort  the  text,  or  add  mere  myth,  until,  as 
a historical  record  of  the  war  it  pretends  to  describe,  it 
is  considered  of  but  little  value.  This  is  a record  of  a 
great  war  between  two  powerful  races,  or  tribes,  called 
the  Kurus  and  the  Panchalas.  There  are  evidences  that 
other  neighboring  tribes  were  also  drawn  into  the 
great  conflict.  Though  advancement  had  been  made  in 
arts  and  sciences,  they  were  none  less  warlike  than 
their  forefathers.  Though  much  of  the  Mahabharata 
is  allegorical,  it  throws  a great  deal  of  light  on  the 
customs  of  the  people  of  that  age.  It  teaches  us  that 
caste  was  beginning  to  assert  itself,  but  had  not 
formed  those  insurmountable  barriers  which  later  ages 
witnessed.  It  shows  that  the  seclusion  of  women  was 
not  practised,  but  that  the  highest  in  rank  of  these 
went  to  witness  the  public  feats  in  archery  and  other 
sports,  and  that  maidens  selected  their  own  husbands. 
It  also  teaches  us  that  vice  was  not  unknown;  for 
Yudhesthera,  the  oldest  of  the  Pandavas,  who  is  the 
most  righteous  character  in  the  epic,  and  was  well 
versed  in  religious  knowledge,  after  he  came  into  pos- 
session of  the  kingdom,  not  only  gambled  it  away,  but 
also  staked  and  lost  himself,  his  brothers,  and  his  beau- 
tiful wife,  Draupadi. 

From  1200  B.  C.  to  1000  B.  C.,  we  find  the  Videhas, 
Kosalas,  and  Kasis  branches  of  the  Aryan  family  in- 
habiting what  is  now  known  as  North  Behar,  Oude, 
and  the  country  about  the  present  city  of  Benares. 
These  bold  races  had  pushed  through  the  jungles, 
crossed  rivers,  subdued  aboriginal  tribes,  and  founded 


Historical  Outline 


13 


strong  and  powerful  kingdoms.  The  writing  pre- 
served, which  throws  some  light  on  Indian  history  of 
this  period,  is  the  Ramayana.  Like  the  Mahabharata, 
scholars  claim  that  it  is  utterly  valueless  as  a history  of 
any  war ; but  the  side-lights  it  throws  out  are  valuable 
in  showing  the  progress  made  in  conquest,  as  also  the 
elevation  to  power  of  the  priestly  class. 

The  Ramayana  teaches  plainly  that  no  longer  do  the 
Kshatriya,  or  warrior  caste,  assert  their  opinions  and 
their  rights  to  any  great  extent;  but  even  Rama,  the 
hero  of  the  epic,  “ though  he  encounters  and  defeats 
a Brahmin  warrior,  Parasa-rama,  does  so  with  many 
apologies  and  due  submission.”  Sita,  the  heroine  of 
the  poem  and  wife  of  Rama,  though  purely  a mytho- 
logical character,  begins  to  tell  the  early  tale  of  woman’s 
complete  and  uncomplaining  subjugation.  Though 
caste  lines  have  been  made,  there  are  examples  where 
women  have  passed  from  one  caste  into  another,  and 
even  married  into  a different  caste.  Moreover,  dur- 
ing this  time,  and  up  to  the  close  of  the  Epic  period, 
only  three  castes  were  recognized;  namely,  the  Brah- 
min, Kshatriya,  and  Vaysya;  and  these  associated  to- 
gether and  ate  together,  and  felt  that  they  were  a 
united  people. 

Though  they  had  extended  their  territory  far  down 
the  Ganges  Valley  during  the  many  preceding  centu- 
ries, they  were  not  essentially  a warlike  people.  They 
seem  to  have  inherited  the  devotional  instincts  of  the 
family  as  the  European  portion  did  the  warlike  pro- 
pensities. They  had  made  considerable  advance  in 
education,  but  their  schools  and  colleges  were  more  for 


14 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


religious  instruction  than  anything  else.  They  had 
discovered  the  lunar  zodiac  in  astronomy,  but  their 
knowledge  in  this  was  used  more  for  regulating  the 
sacrifices  than  for  any  scientific  purpose.  Considerable 
progress  was  made  also  in  developing  a code  of  laws 
for  the  government  of  the  people. 

From  the  year  1000  B.  C.  to  242  B.  C.,  historians 
call  the  Rationalistic  period.  During  these  years  the 
Aryans  conquered  many  aboriginal  tribes,  and  ex- 
tended their  kingdom  into  central  India  and  to  the 
Arabian  Sea  on  the  west,  and  to  the  Bay  of  Bengal  on 
the  east.  This  period  seems  to  have  been  a practical 
period,  and  all  their  writings  and  teachings  in  religion 
and  science  were  reduced  to  the  most  concise  expres- 
sions. The  literature  of  this  period  is  called  Sutra 
literature,  and  the  object  was  to  replace  the  volumi- 
nous writings  of  the  previous  age  by  aphorisms.  This 
style  of  literature  rapidly  spread,  and  schools  sprang 
up  in  many  places  to  teach  it.  These  Sutras  reduced 
the  extended  ceremonials  of  religious  rites  of  the  Vedas 
to  mere  manuals.  In  law  we  have  the  code  of  Manu, 
defining  the  duties  of  citizens,  and  in  social  life  the 
Grihya  Sutra,  defining  the  domestic  duties. 

Grammars  also  were  written,  and  rules  for  pronun- 
ciation. In  this  they  were  in  advance  of  the  Greeks 
or  the  Romans.  The  grammar  of  Panini,  in  the 
Sanskrit,  compiled  350  B.  C.,  is  still  the  foundation  of 
the  study  of  the  language.  The  science  of  geometry 
was  discovered  and  somewhat  developed,  and  the  phi- 
losophy of  Kapila  is  comparable  to  that  of  Aristotle 
in  its  reasonings. 


Historical  Outline 


15 


No  one  can  read  the  literature  of  this  period,  or 
any  portion  of  it,  without  seeing  that  caste  prejudices 
had  taken  a terrible  hold,  and  that  the  Brahmins  ex- 
ercised their  privileges  to  the  great  humiliation  and 
detriment  of  the  common  people.  The  oppressions 
prepared  the  way  for  Buddhism.  The  people  were 
anxious  to  be  freed  from  the  galling  yoke  of  the  Brah- 
mins, so  that  when  Prince  Gautama,  the  founder  of 
Buddhism,  announced  his  principles  with  regard  to  the 
brotherhood  of  man,  they  were  hailed  with  joy. 
Though  the  Brahmins  had  prepared  the  way  for  the 
spread  of  Buddhism,  and  though  the  people  seemed  to 
flock  around  the  standard  of  Buddha,  it  was  three  cen- 
turies after  his  death,  which  occurred  447  B.  C.,  be- 
fore Asoka,  the  greatest  of  India’s  emperors,  declared 
it  to  be  the  religion  of  the  State.  Such  was  the  hold 
that  Hinduism  had  upon  the  people.  If  it  took  Bud- 
dhism. which  had  much  in  common  with  Hinduism, 
three  centuries  to  convert  the  people,  where  is  the 
ground  for  discouragement  in  Christian  missions? 

Hitherto  all  the  light  that  has  been  thrown  on  In- 
dian history  is  gathered  from  the  writings  of  the 
Hindus,  which  are  mostly  of  a religious  nature;  but  to- 
ward the  close  of  this  period,  India  began  to  come  in 
contact  with  portions  of  the  family  which  had,  many 
centuries  before,  drifted  westward.  Herodotus,  the 
Greek  historian  who  lived  in  the  fourth  century  B.  C., 
speaks  of  the  Hindus  as  the  greatest  nation  of  the  ages. 

The  same  writer  tells  us  that  Darius  the  Persian  sub- 
jugated a portion  of  India,  and  that  his  ships  sailed 
down  the  Indus  to  the  sea.  Later,  Magasthenes,  a 

B 


16 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


Greek,  in  the  fourth  century  B.  C.,  came  to  India  and 
lived  with  one  of  the  kings,  and  wrote  of  its  civiliza- 
tion and  conquests.  These  writings  show  that  all  of 
India,  except  some  of  the  deserts  and  some  of  the 
mountain  fastnesses,  had  been  conquered,  and  the 
aboriginal  tribes  either  subjugated  and  Hinduized,  or 
else  driven  back  into  these  barren  places  and  mountain 
retreats. 

Toward  the  close  of  this  period  other  important 
events  were  taking  place,  among  which  was  the  inva- 
sion of  the  country  by  Alexander  the  Great.  He  en- 
tered India  327  B.  C.,  and  had  it  not  been  for  the 
intense  heat  of  the  summer  and  the  southwest  mon- 
soon, he  might  have  marched  his  conquering  armies 
through  the  whole  length  of  the  land.  It  was  not  be- 
cause there  were  no  native  armies  to  oppose  him,  but 
because  the  native  kings  were  jealous  of  each  other, 
and  often  would  rather  espouse  the  cause  of  Alex- 
ander, if  a local  enemy  could  thereby  be  humbled,  than 
unitedly  to  oppose  him  and  save  their  country.  But 
the  heat  was  a more  powerful  enemy  than  the  Indian 
armies,  and  Alexander  resolved  to  withdraw  from  the 
country.  He  constructed  a fleet  upon  which  part  of 
the  army  sailed  down  the  Indus,  and  thence  up  the 
Persian  Gulf;  and  part  went  overland,  through  Belu- 
chistan  and  Persia.  He  founded  some  cities  during  his 
brief  stay,  of  which  the  present  city  of  Haidarabad  is 
one.  Later,  other  marauding  Greek  bands  came  into 
the  country,  and  as  far  south  as  Oude,  but  established 
no  kingdoms. 

Internal  dissensions  were  rife  in  this  period,  and 


Historical  Outline 


17 


there  were  frequent  changes  of  dynasties.  This  condi- 
tion made  the  inhabitants  an  easy  prey  to  any  strong, 
warlike,  and  united  people.  From  the  west  such  a 
host  was  coming  in  upon  them.  In  the  year  126  B.  C., 
the  Scythian,  or  Tartar,  tribe  came  down  through  the 
mountain  passes  of  the  northwest,  and  established  a 
foothold  in  the  Punjab.  They  came  to  stay  and  to  ex- 
tend their  territory,  and  it  is  recorded  of  one  of  their 
kings,  Kanishka,  that  he  extended  his  kingdom  as 
far  south  as  Agra. 

Valiant  kings  arose  in  India  to  repel  and  expel  these 
northern  hordes,  and  the  struggles  were  long  and  the 
results  various.  In  the  year  A.  D.  515,  the  great 
Hindu  king,  Vikramaditya,  arose  and  regained  pos- 
session of  the  greater  part  of  India,  and  established 
peace,  which  lasted  for  two  centuries.  This  was  also 
the  period  in  which  the  Puranas,  one  of  the  sacred 
books  of  the  Hindus,  was  written,  and  it  also  wit- 
nessed the  rapid  decline  of  Buddhism.  In  the  eighth 
century  A.  D.,  the  Rajput,  who  had  hitherto  scarcely 
been  reckoned  to  be  within  the  pale  of  the  Aryan 
Hindus,  rose  to  power. 

The  founder  of  this  dynasty  was  a brave  general  in 
Gujarat,  Senapati  Bhalarka  by  name,  who  declared 
his  independence,  and,  carrying  the  banner  of  Puranic 
Hinduism,  established  Brahmin  supremacy  everywhere 
in  India.  In  the  twelfth  century  A.  D.,  India  was 
ruled  by  three  Rajput  kings — Prothu  Rai  Chohan,  at 
Delhi  and  Ajmir;  Jaya  Chandra  Rathore  was  king  of 
Kanauj,  Allahabad,  Oude,  and  Benares;  and  Bhima 
Deva  was  ruler  of  Gujarat  and  central  India. 


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India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


But  the  days  of  the  brave  Rajputs,  who  had  ruled 
India  for  nearly  four  centuries,  were  numbered.  Sha- 
habuddin  Ghori,  a Mohammedan  conqueror,  entered 
India  A.  D.  1191,  and  led  his  victorious  armies  through 
the  country.  The  Rajputs,  after  making  a brave  but 
unsuccessful  attempt  to  save  their  kingdom,  returned 
to  Rajputana,  leaving  the  Mohammedans  the  undis- 
puted possessors  of  the  country.  Shahabuddin  Ghori 
was  a practical  ruler,  and  at  once  set  about  the  task  of 
thoroughly  organizing  his  kingdom.  The  name  of 
Ghori ’s  Indian  viceroy  was  Kutub-ud-din,  who  upon 
the  death  of  his  sovereign  established  a new  dynasty 
called  the  Slave  dynasty,  from  the  fact  that  Kutub-ud- 
din  was  once  a Turkish  slave.  The  great  minaret 
twelve  miles  from  Delhi,  which  is  one  of  the  wonders 
of  the  world,  was  erected  in  memory  of  Kutub-ud-din. 

Other  Mohammedan  dynasties  followed,  as  they 
could  by  intrigue  or  power  gain  the  ascendency.  In 
1398  the  great  Tartar  general,  Tamerlane,  swept  over 
the  country,  devastating  cities  and  murdering  the  peo- 
ple; but  when  satiated  with  blood  he  retired  toward 
central  Asia. 

In  A.  D.  1526,  Baber  entered  the  country  and  es- 
tablished the  Mogul  dynasty.  The  country  was  divided 
into  many  petty  kingdoms,  ruled  both  by  Hindu  princes 
and  Mohammedan  kings.  Baber  was  a lineal  descend- 
ant of  Tamerlane,  and,  like  him,  was  fierce  and  war- 
like, and  took  delight  in  the  task  before  him.  As  Sha- 
habuddin had  done  centuries  before,  so  he  now  went 
from  one  victory  to  another,  until  at  his  death,  which 
occurred  A.  D.  1530,  he  held  possession  of  India  as  far 


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19 


as  Behar  in  the  eastern  valley  of  the  Ganges.  His 
son,  who  succeeded  him,  was  not  able  fully  to  hold  to- 
gether the  kingdom  on  account  of  family  dissensions; 
but  his  grandson,  Akbar  the  Great,  who  began  to  reign 
A.  D.  1556,  thoroughly  established  the  Mogul  Empire. 

Of  the  work  of  Akbar  and  his  successors  we  have 
no  time  to  speak.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  the  finest  archi- 
tecture of  India  belongs  to  this  period.  The  palace  of 
Delhi,  with  the  peacock  throne,  was  built  by  one  of 
these  kings,  and  also  the  Taj  Mahal  at  Agra.  This 
latter  is  the  achitectural  gem  of  the  world,  and  was 
built  by  Shah  Jehan  in  honor  of  his  wife,  Mumtazi 
Mahal,  whose  tomb  it  is.  Aurangzeb  was  the  last  of 
the  Mogul  kings  who  ruled  with  any  force  or  inde- 
pendence of  character,  and  the  empire  began  gradually 
to  crumble  after  his  death. 

The  rising  of  the  Sikhs  and  Mahrattas  among  the 
Hindus,  and  the  appalling  depredations  of  the  Afghans, 
as  they  made  six  successive  invasions,  were  the  direct 
causes  which  contributed  to  the  fall  of  the  Mogul  Em- 
pire. It  may  be  said  to  have  disappeared,  so  far  as 
exerting  any  influence  on  the  country,  in  1765 ; though 
for  nearly  another  century  they  kept  up  an  appearance 
of  sovereignty.  Mohammed  Bahadur  Shah,  the  seven- 
teenth Mogul  emperor,  and  last  of  the  race  of  Timur, 
for  his  complicity  in  the  mutiny  of  1857  was  banished 
to  Rangoon,  where  he  died  in  1862. 

In  the  meantime  Great  Britain  appeared  on  the  field, 
and  taking  advantage  of,  or  pity  on,  the  utter  chaotic 
condition  of  the  country,  began  to  establish  a foothold 
there  with  a view  of  becoming  a nation  in  India.  The 


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India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


English  had  long  been  in  India  under  the  name 
of  the  East  India  Company.  This  company  was  or- 
ganized in  A.  D.  1600,  with  a capital  of  seventy  thou- 
sand pounds,  and  had  purchased  some  possessions  in 
the  vicinity  of  Bombay,  Madras,  and  Calcutta,  and  * 
had  opened  up  many  trading  points  here  and  there. 
The  whole  of  Calcutta,  with  the  surrounding  country, 
was  purchased  from  the  viceroy  of  Bengal.  He  sold 
his  valuable  territory  in  order  to  get  money  to  carry 
out  his  scheme  for  the  succession  of  the  Mogul  Empire. 
The  present  Fort  William,  one  of  the  largest  forts  in 
the  world,  was  begun  in  1707.  Fort  Saint  David,  on 
the  Coromandel  coast,  had  also  been  erected.  With 
money,  a few  strong  forts,  and  a few  brave  soldiers, 
the  English  were  in  a position  to  take  advantage  of  the 
conditions  as  above  described. 

It  is  not  the  object  of  this  brief  narrative  to  give  a 
detailed  account  of  the  history  of  the  rise  of  the  Eng- 
lish in  India.  There  are  many  well-written  histories 
on  this  subject,  and  they  may  be  found  in  almost  any 
bookstore.  A few  leading  facts  will,  however,  be  in 
place.  The  French  had  in  some  places,  and  the  Portu- 
guese in  others,  established  themselves.  The  Mahrat- 
tas  and  the  Sikhs  were  at  war  with  the  Moguls,  and 
other  internal  wars  also  prevailed. 

During  part  of  this  time  France  and  England  were 
fighting,  which  necessarily  involved  their  India  pos- 
sessions. It  soon  became  known  that  English  soldiers 
were  good  fighters,  so  the  East  India  Company  was 
often  appealed  to  for  help  by  one  or  the  other  of  the 
many  contending  parties.  At  the  close  of  nearly  all 


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21 


these  contentions  and  battles,  favorable  treaties  for  the 
English  were  entered  into  and  new  territory  was  ac- 
quired. After  the  company  had  secured  a strong  foot- 
hold, the  settled  policy  was  to  acquire  new  territory  as 
fast  as  possible.  The  history  of  the  conquest  of  Ben- 
gal, and  the  achievements  of  Lord  Clive;  of  Warren 
Hastings  and  his  operations;  the  first  Mahratta  war, 
and  the  war  with  Mysore;  Lord  Cornwallis,  and  the 
second  Mysore  war;  the  Marquis  of  Wellesley,  and  his 
settled  policy  of  making  the  English  the  one  para- 
mount power  in  India,  and  his  third  Mysore  war  and 
second  Mahratta  war;  and  the  great  acquisitions  of 
territory  under  these  administrations — these  make 
very  interesting  reading,  and  may  be  found  fully 
treated  in  Hugh  Murray’s  history  of  India,  or  in  that 
of  James  Grant,  or  in  any  other  standard  work.  The 
further  conquests  of  Lord  Minto,  and  his  consolidation 
of  the  conquests  of  Wellesley;  Lord  Moira,  and  his 
war  with  Nepaul,  by  which  the  hill  stations  of  Naini 
Tal,  Mussourie,  and  Simla  were  acquired  from  the 
brave  and  warlike  Gurkhas;  the  war  in  central  India 
with  the  Pendaris;  and  the  last  Mahratta  war — form 
interesting  chapters. 

Following  these  eventful  times  was  the  first  Burmese 
war,  1824-1826,  by  which  Assam  and  other  portions 
of  the  northeast  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Eng- 
lish. During  the  time  of  Lord  Bentinck,  suttee,  or  the 
burning  of  the  live  widow  on  the  funeral  pyre  with  the 
dead  body  of  her  husband,  was  prohibited  and  done 
away  with.  In  connection  with  this  we  may  see  the 
elasticity  of  the  conscience  of  the  Hindu.  When  the 


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India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


order  was  passed  prohibiting  this  most  inhuman  prac- 
tice, a deputation  of  Brahmins  waited  on  the  viceroy, 
and  told  him  that  their  consciences  told  them  that 
suttee  was  the  right  thing  for  them  to  practise.  Lord 
Bentinck  replied:  “Very  well,  follow  the  dictates  of 
your  conscience;  but  the  Englishman’s  conscience  tells 
him  that  whoever  aids  or  abets  in  murder  shall  be 
hanged.  You  burn  your  widows  according  to  your 
conscience  and  we  will  hang  you  according  to  ours.” 
Suffice  it  to  say,  no  Brahmins  were  hanged  for  con- 
science’ sake. 

Soon  after  the  acquisition  of  Assam  came  the  Af- 
ghan war,  which  resulted  in  the  utter  defeat  of  the 
English,  and  in  which  four  thousand  fighting  men  and 
twelve  thousand  camp  followers  perished  either  in  the 
snowy  defiles  of  Kurd  Kabul,  or  from  the  knives  and 
guns  of  the  treacherous  Afghans.  The  first  Sikh  war 
gave  Lahore  to  the  British,  and  under  the  administra- 
tion of  Lord  Dalhousie,  Oude,  Nagpore,  and  parts  of 
the  Punjab  and  Burma,  and  other  possessions  were  an- 
nexed. Lord  Dalhousie  turned  the  sod  for  the  first 
railroad,  and  established  in  certain  parts  of  the  coun- 
try telegraphic  communication. 

The  next  important  event  in  the  history  of  India  is 
the  terrible  mutiny  of  1857.  The  causes  of  this  wide- 
spread disaffection  have  been  discussed  time  and  again. 
Whatever  may  have  been  the  cause  or  causes,  the  di- 
rect occasion  was  the  introduction  of  the  Enfield  rifles 
and  the  greased  cartridges  to  be  used  with  them.  It 
was  rumored  among  the  sepoys  (native  soldiers),  who 
were  both  Hindus  and  Mohammedans,  that  the  grease 


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23 


used  in  these  cartridges  was  made  from  the  tallow  of 
the  cow  and  the  fat  of  the  hog.  The  hog  is  unclean 
to  the  Mohammedan,  and  the  cow  is  sacred  to  the 
Hindu,  so  that  report  was  a sharp  two-edged  sword 
which  cut  both  ways.  It  is  probable  that  the  real  cause 
of  the  disaffection  lay  in  the  fact  that  the  people  saw 
that  Western  ideas  and  ways  were  creeping  into  the 
country,  and  that  in  time,  unless  something  was  done 
to  check  it,  their  ancient  customs  and  religion  would 
be  overthrown. 

The  first  overt  mutinous  act  occurred  February  25, 
at  Berhampore,  one  hundred  and  sixteen  miles  north 
of  Calcutta.  This  act  was  the  Nineteenth  Bengal  Na- 
tive Infantry’s  refusing  to  accept  the  cartridges.  Soon 
the  blood  of  an  English  officer  was  shed,  which  was 
the  signal  for  the  lighting,  so  to  speak,  of  the  fires  of 
war  on  every  hilltop.  By  May  this  spirit  of  rebellion 
had  become  so  widespread  and  so  rampant,  that  every 
Englishman  in  India  felt  prepared  for  any  news.  It 
came  from  Merut  and  told  of  the  burning  of  the  Eng- 
lish quarters,  and  the  massacring  of  men,  women,  and 
children  by  the  sepoys.  From  Merut  they  went  to 
Delhi,  only  twelve  miles  away. 

But  why  attempt  to  tell  of  the  terrible  carnage  of 
that  year?  Delhi,  Lucknow,  and  Cawnpore  are  al- 
most synonyms  for  all  that  is  brave,  and  true,  and  suf- 
fering on  the  part  of  the  English — men,  women,  and 
children;  and  all  that  is  cowardly,  treacherous,  and 
savage  on  the  part  of  the  sepoys.  Taking  into  account 
the  character  of  the  combatants  and  those  connected 
with  them,  and  the  terrible  odds  against  the  English, 


24 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


there  has  probably  been  no  event  in  the  history  of  any 
nation  of  more  thrilling  interest  than  the  sepoy  mutiny 
of  1857.  Though  Delhi  fell,  it  was  retaken;  though 
sixty  thousand  sepoys  surrounded  the  residency  at 
Lucknow,  it  was  relieved  by  five  thousand  British  sol- 
diers; though  Cawnpore  had  witnessed  the  most  terri- 
ble butchery  of  innocent  women  and  children  ever  re- 
corded, and  had  come  fully  into  the  hands  of  the  rebels, 
it  was  not  long  held.  Town  after  town  was  reoccu- 
pied which  had  been  taken  by  the  mutineers,  and  fort 
after  fort  was  stormed,  until  in  January,  1859,  the 
echo  of  the  last  gun  died  away,  and  the  last  fugitive 
was  chased  across  the  frontier. 

On  the  first  of  November,  1858,  at  a grand  durbar 
held  in  Allahabad,  Lord  Canning,  the  viceroy  of  India, 
sent  forth  the  royal  proclamation  that  the  Queen  of 
England  had  assumed  the  government  of  India.  Thus 
was  brought  to  a close  the  history  and  existence  of  the 
East  India  Company,  the  greatest  commercial  and 
military  company  that  ever  existed;  and  thus  began 
the  reign  of  Queen  Victoria  as  Empress  of  India. 
Religious  neutrality  and  justice  were  the  guiding  prin- 
ciples of  the  queen,  and  in  no  time  since  the  age  of 
the  Rig-Veda,  have  the  people  of  India  been  so  secure 
in  the  possession  of  their  property  and  their  civil  rights 
and  religious  privileges  as  to-day. 

In  these  pages  I have  tried  to  give  a bird’s-eye  view 
of  the  events  of  the  centuries,  the  knowledge  of  which 
will,  I trust,  give  us  a better  idea  of  the  people,  the 
country,  and  the  problems  before  us  as  Christian 
workers. 


CHAPTER  II 


British  Rule  in  India 

IN  the  previous  chapter  I gave  a summary  of  the 
leading  events  of  the  nation,  and  referred  to  the 
occupancy  of  the  country  by  the  East  India  Com- 
pany, and  the  refusal  of  Parliament  to  continue 
the  charter  of  this  company,  and  Queen  Victoria  be- 
coming Empress  of  India.  Let  us  now  see  how  the 
Indian  government  is  carrying  out  the  pledge  which 
Queen  Victoria  made  to  the  India  people  when  she 
became  empress  in  1858.  Broadly  speaking,  the  pledge 
was  this:  in  matters  of  religion  the  government  was 
to  remain  neutral,  but  in  matters  of  justice  it  was  to 
take  a firm  stand. 

There  are  times  when  these  two  fundamental  prin- 
ciples conflict.  In  the  mind  of  the  Hindu  custom  be- 
comes a religious  act.  For  centuries  it  was  the  custom 
of  the  Hindu  to  marry  his  daughter  at  a not  later 
age  than  ten  years.  Medical  missionaries  in  particular, 
and  in  fact  the  whole  missionary  body,  saw  the  cruel 
wrong  inflicted  on  these  poor,  innocent  little  girls,  and 
they  raised  their  voices  so  loud  that  the  government 
heard  and  placed  the  legal  age  at  twelve  years.  But 
unless  some  such  wrong  is  practised  the  people  may 
worship  as  they  desire. 

Let  us  briefly  glance  at  some  of  the  benefits  con- 
ferred on  the  people  by  British  rule. 


25 


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India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


1.  Justice.  In  courts  of  law  even-handed  justice  is 
meted  out  as  far  as  possible.  Now,  I do  not  mean  to 
say  that  all  the  people  secure  justice  in  the  courts.  If 
they  did,  many  a man  who  is  at  liberty  now  would  be 
behind  prison-bars.  I heard  the  superintendent  of  jails 
in  Midnapore  say  that  “ the  people  of  India  were 
divided  into  two  classes — those  who  were  in  jails  and 
those  who  ought  to  be.”  Of  course  he  was  a pessi- 
mist; for  all  the  people  of  India  ought  not  to  be  in  jail. 
Some  should  be  there  who  are  not,  and  some  are  there 
who  ought  never  to  have  gone  there.  The  great  trou- 
ble is  to  get  at  the  truth  in  a case,  but  when  truth 
can  be  ascertained  by  an  English  judge  or  magistrate, 
he  judges  according  to  the  principles  of  justice,  let  it 
hit  whom  it  will.  This  the  Indian  people  well  know, 
and  this  is  what  the  higher  class  of  people  do  not 
like.  This  is  something  which  has  never  been  in  their 
land  before.  They  say,  “ How  is  it  possible  that  I,  a 
Brahmin,  should  be  subjected  to  the  same  laws  as  a 
Sudra  ? ” It  is  this  equality  in  the  eyes  of  the  law 
that  the  high-caste  people  would  gladly  change. 

The  same  thing  is  true  on  the  railways.  If  a Brah- 
min and  Sudra  pay  the  same  fare  they  go  into  the  same 
compartment.  The  Brahmin’s  head  is  high,  and  the 
poor  Sudra  begs  many  pardons  for  being  forced  into 
the  same  compartment,  but  objections  are  useless  on 
the  part  of  either.  And  each  is  finding  that  no  great 
harm  comes  to  them. 

2.  Famines.  Some  of  the  Indian  newspapers  try 
to  hold  the  government  responsible  for  the  famines. 
The  lack  of  rain  is  the  cause  of  famines,  and  not  even 


British  Rule  in  India 


27 


an  English  government  can  control  the  rainfall,  but 
some  seem  to  think  it  can.  But  the  government  does  a 
great  many  things  which  tend  to  mitigate  the  evil,  and 
even  in  many  cases  to  avert  the  evil.  Formerly  great 
famines  devastated  the  country  in  places,  and  the  rulers 
did  nothing.  They  simply  said  it  was  their  fate  and 
they  accepted  it,  and  the  people  lay  down  and  died  by 
thousands.  Under  British  rule  there  are  thousands  of 
miles  of  irrigation  canals  built,  and  thirty-two  million 
acres  are  irrigated  when  necessary.  If  drought  visits 
that  part  of  the  country  which  has  no  irrigation  works 
and  famine  follows,  the  government  institutes  relief 
works,  and  in  many  cases  actually  feeds  those  who  are 
too  feeble  to  work.  I could  give  chapters  from  my 
own  experience  along  both  of  these  lines  of  relief. 

3.  Schools.  While  it  is  true  that  there  is  no  sys- 
tem of  public  common  schools  in  India,  it  is  also  true 
that  the  government  is  doing  much  to  help  the  people 
to  an  education.  Formerly  all  education  was  confined 
to  the  highest  classes,  these  claiming  that  lower-caste 
people  had  no  right  to  an  education.  The  missionaries 
began  to  educate  all  classes,  and  the  government  has 
boldly  seconded  their  efforts,  and  the  efforts  of  any 
Indian  gentleman  who  has  enough  of  public  spirit  and 
interest  in  education  or  philanthropy  to  try  and  es- 
tablish a school. 

There  are  technical  schools  assisted  and  some  en- 
tirely supported  by  the  government.  There  are  also 
normal-training  schools,  and  colleges,  and  universities 
which  are  almost  wholly  supported  by  the  government. 

It  has  been  my  privilege  to  be  connected  with  schools 


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India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


in  various  ways  and  with  different  kinds  of  schools, 
and  in  furnishing  schools  and  even  building  school- 
houses,  and  in  all  my  work  along  this  line  I have  found 
the  government  most  considerate  and  helpful.  If  the 
government  sees  a disposition  on  the  part  of  any  one 
to  promote  education,  it  is  always  ready  to  do  its  share. 
There  are  officers  employed  and  appointed  by  the  gov- 
ernment, from  inspecting  pundits  up  to  inspector  of 
schools,  all  of  which  are  under  the  Department  of 
Public  Instruction,  to  see  that  the  work  is  well  done. 
And  the  people  are  beginning  to  feel  the  need  of  an 
education,  and  are  gradually  advancing  along  this  line. 

4.  Hospitals.  I believe  I am  safe  in  saying  that 
there  is  no  country  in  the  world  which  has  made  such 
provisions  for  people  who  are  ill  from  various  dis- 
eases as  India.  All  up  and  down  the  great  trunk  roads, 
for  thousands  of  miles  here  and  there,  are  free  dis- 
pensaries and  hospitals  for  the  use  of  suffering  travel- 
ers. In  the  large  cities  there  are  splendid  hospitals 
on  a large  scale,  many  of  which  are  absolutely  free  if 
you  wish  to  enter  a free  ward.  There  are  eye  and  ear 
infirmaries,  where  thousands  are  treated  every  year 
free  of  cost.  We  have  sent  a number  of  our  native 
Christians  to  these  for  surgical  operations,  and  all 
absolutely  free.  In  one  case  where  the  girl  had  to  have 
an  operation  for  hair-lip,  they  gave  her  a set  of  false 
teeth. 

I do  not  say  that  all  persons  who  come  to  these  dis- 
pensaries are  treated  free,  or  that  their  wants  are  at 
once  supplied.  Many  of  these  are  in  the  hands  of 
native  doctors,  necessarily,  and  their  hands  itch  for 


British  Rule  in  India 


29 


money.  If  a little  is  not  forthcoming  the  patient  may 
wait  a long  time.  But  this  is  no  fault  of  the  govern- 
ment. 

5.  Thugism.  The  Thugs  were  a caste  of  men  who 
robbed  and  murdered  unsuspecting  travelers.  Before 
starting  out  on  their  wicked  errand,  they  would  make 
an  offering  to  the  god  Kali,  and  then  their  victims 
would  be  religiously  murdered.  During  the  hot  months 
travelers  often  start  on  their  journeys  at  three  in  the 
morning.  These  Thugs  would  join  a company  of 
travelers  and  allure  one  to  the  rear,  and  then  throw  a 
cloth  around  his  neck  and  strangle  him  instantly  and 
take  his  money,  and  the  rest  would  know  nothing  about 
it.  This  has  been  wholly  suppressed. 

6.  Telegraph  lines.  All  the  cities  and  more  impor- 
tant towns,  and  even  smaller  towns  all  over  the  coun- 
try, are  connected  by  telegraph  lines,  and  the  rate  is 
very  low  indeed.  These  are  not  owned  by  syndicates 
who  fatten  from  the  profits,  but  are  owned  by  the  gov- 
ernment, and  though  the  rates  are  so  low  they  return  a 
fair  revenue  to  the  country. 

7.  Postal  department.  Letter  postage  is  but  a cent 
a letter,  and  all  other  postal  matter  is  in  proportion. 
Parcel  post  universally  prevails,  and  even  sending  by 
value-payable  post  is  most  common.  By  this  latter 
method  a person  can  send  to  a merchant  and  have  an 
article  sent,  and  the  man  who  delivers  the  mail  will 
collect  the  value,  and  for  a small  consideration  the  de- 
partment returns  the  amount  to  the  sender. 

In  every  town  of  any  size  there  is  a postal  savings- 
bank.  Here  the  depositor  gets  three  per  cent  on  his 


30 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


money,  and  it  is  as  safe  as  the  government.  In  this 
way  small  sums  are  saved  which  would  not  be  other- 
wise. It  is  surely  a great  blessing  to  the  man  who 
earns  but  a small  salary,  and  also  to  any  person  who 
has  no  money  to  lose  by  the  breaking  of  banks. 

This  chapter  could  be  lengthened  into  a book  if  I 
should  write  of  human  sacrifices,  suttee,  female  in- 
fanticide, and  barbarous  punishment  of  criminals  sup- 
pressed, and  of  the  many  other  things  which  were  in 
common  practice  before  the  English  took  over  the 
country. 

I am  sure  no  disinterested  person  who  is  acquainted 
with  conditions  in  India,  will  say  that  British  rule 
is  not  for  the  good  of  the  great  mass  of  the  common 
people.  It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  antagonize  the 
classes  for  the  good  of  the  masses.  A case  in  point 
will  be  the  Bengal  Tenancy  Act.  For  ages  it  has  been 
the  habit  of  zemindars  (landlords)  to  rent  their  land 
for  so  much  per  bega,  or  let  it  on  shares.  If  there  were 
a pilgrimage  to  make,  or  if  there  were  a marriage  in 
the  landlord’s  family — which  is  a very  expensive  af- 
fair, or  if  there  were  a death — which  is  also  attended 
with  expense,  the  zemindar  would  simply  figure  up  how 
much  each  acre  of  land  must  be  assessed  to  pay  the  bills, 
and  the  tenants  had  it  to  pay.  This  act  was  to  put  a 
stop  to  such  extortion.  Under  the  old  rule,  if  a tenant 
refused  to  pay  these  extra  assessments  he  was  simply 
dispossessed  of  his  land.  This  act  was  to  provide  that 
not  only  could  the  landlord  not  levy  these  assessments, 
but  that  he  could  not  dispossess  the  tenant  if  he  had 
paid  his  rent  for  twelve  successive  years,  and  so  long  as 


British  Rule  in  India 


31 


he  continued  to  pay  his  rent.  I happened  to  be  in  Cal- 
cutta on  the  eve  of  the  passage  of  that  bill,  and  there 
was  a great  demonstration  on  the  part  of  the  landlords 
against  its  passage.  But  the  bill  passed,  and  so  secured 
the  poor  tenants  a degree  of  help.  But  there  are  many 
ways  in  which  the  wily  landlord  evades  the  law,  as  I 
know  from  experience. 

It  is  sometimes  urged  that  there  is  no  sympathy  be- 
tween the  English  officials  and  the  natives,  and  that 
the  English  are  autocratic  to  a most  unpleasant  degree. 
In  cases  this  may  be  true,  but  so  far  as  my  observation 
goes  it  is  not  true  of  the  higher  officials.  Where  such 
lack  of  sympathy  exists  on  the  part  of  the  English,  it 
is  more  with  clerks  and  non-officials.  Still,  the  culti- 
vation of  more  sympathy  is  greatly  to  be  desired  on 
both  sides.  But  while  speaking  of  lack  of  sympathy, 
we  must  not  forget  that  the  Indian  carries  his  caste 
prejudices  with  him  everywhere.  He  refuses  to  sit 
at  the  table  with  the  highest  official.  It  may  be  urged 
that  this  is  on  account  of  his  religion.  That  may  be 
true,  but  whatever  it  may  be  which  places  one  man  so 
much  above  another  that  he  cannot  eat  at  the  same 
table  without  becoming  unclean,  naturally  creates  a 
gulf  between  them.  To  this  question  of  lack  of  sym- 
pathy there  are  therefore  two  sides. 

It  is  also  claimed  that  the  native  Indians  do  not 
have  enough  voice  in  the  government  of  their  own 
country.  For  my  own  part,  I never  saw  much  force  to 
this  argument,  though  it  has  been  used  by  native  gen- 
tlemen to  good  effect,  and  also  by  Englishmen  in  Eng- 
land when  there  was  some  end  to  be  gained.  Every 
c 


32 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


office  up  to  commissioner  is  open  to  the  Indian  who 
can  pass  the  civil-service  test.  I grant  you  that  these 
are  severe  tests.  The  whole  man  is  taken  into  the  ac- 
count. His  physical,  intellectual,  and  moral  attain- 
ments are  carefully  considered.  The  examination  pa- 
pers look  very  like  the  curriculum  of  a well-ordered 
college,  but  the  tests  are  the  same  for  all. 

To  show  what  the  real  situation  is  with  respect  to 
British  rule,  and  what  it  would  be  if  ruled  by  a native 
king,  let  me  quote  a few  words  from  among  the  many 
from  the  “ Indian  Social  Reformer.”  In  reading  this 
short  paragraph,  please  remember  that  nearly  half  of 
India  is  ruled  by  native  kings.  This  is  what  he  says : 
“ There  is  no  native  State  whose  subjects  do  not  cast 
an  envious  eye  on  their  brethren  across  the  border 
which  divides  it  from  British  territory.  Even  the 
most  disaffected  Indian  carries  his  head  somewhat  high 
among  his  compatriots  of  the  States  because  of  his 
British  citizenship.  Educated  men,  unless  employed 
in  the  service  of  the  States,  find  the  atmosphere  cramp- 
ing and  uncongenial,  and  are  glad  to  settle  down  in 
British  India.” 

I am  not  writing  a book  on  British  rule  in  India.  I 
am  trying  to  say  what  I have  to  say  in  the  fewest  pos- 
sible words,  but  I cannot  refrain  from  saying  a word 
with  reference  to  the  partition  of  Bengal,  for  this  has 
been  assigned  as  one  of  the  causes  of  the  unrest.  Lord 
Curzon  while  viceroy  thought  it  would  be  for  the 
best  interests  of  the  country  to  have  the  large  province 
of  Bengal  divided,  taking  the  eastern  portion  and 
uniting  it  to  Assam,  making  a sixth  province  of 


British  Rule  in  India 


33 


eastern  Bengal  and  Assam.  None  but  the  purest  motive 
can  be  assigned  for  this  act.  He  simply  thought  the 
interests  of  the  people  could  be  better  looked  after  than 
they  could  be  by  having  the  province  of  Bengal  so 
large.  The  Bengalese  of  Calcutta  were  up  in  arms, 
and  could  not  say  bitter  things  enough  against  the 
viceroy  and  his  council.  Probably  the  greatest  demon- 
stration ever  seen  in  Calcutta  was  on  the  day  previous 
to  the  passing  of  the  bill.  Many  thoughtful  persons 
feared  a scene  similar  to  the  destruction  of  the  Bastile 
in  Paris.  It  might  have  been  better  to  let  the  par- 
tition of  the  province  remain  over  for  some  future 
statesman  instead  of  adding  fuel  to  the  fire  already 
smoldering,  but  he  did  the  thing  which  no  doubt  was 
for  the  best  interests  of  the  country,  and  the  future  will 
demonstrate  it. 


CHAPTER  III 


Political  Divisions  and  How  the  Country  is  Governed 

INDIA  may  be  said  to  be  divided  politically  into 
five  divisions:  (i)  The  Portuguese  have  two  or 
three  possessions;  (2)  the  French  have  a portion, 
and  a little  more  than  the  Portuguese;  (3)  there 
are  two  independent  States  in  the  northern  part,  Ne- 
paul  and  Bhutan;  (4)  there  are  one  hundred  and  sixty 
native  protected  States,  which  embrace  one-third  of 
all  the  territory  of  India.  These  are  ruled  by  native 
kings,  who  have  with  them,  usually  at  their  capital,  a 
British  resident.  The  work  of  the  latter  is  to  look 
after  British  interests,  and  to  advise  with  the  king  on 
all  important  subjects.  (5)  There  are  six  provinces 
directly  under  British  rule,  which  embrace  the  most 
fertile  parts  of  India.  These  provinces  are  the  Punjab, 
United  Provinces,  Bombay,  Madras,  Bengal,  and 
Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam.  It  was  under  Lord  Cur- 
zon  that  the  latter  province  was  created  by  taking  the 
eastern  portion  of  Bengal  and  uniting  it  with  Assam, 
which  formerly  had  been  ruled  by  a commissioner.  It 
was  this  act  of  Lord  Curzon  which  made  him  unpopu- 
lar with  the  natives,  and  gave  them  an  occasion  to  raise 
a great  outcry  against  British  rule  in  India. 

The  Punjab  has  a lieutenant-governor  as  the  high- 
est resident  official.  This  is  also  true  of  the  United 
Provinces.  Bengal  has  a lieutenant-governor  and  a 


Political  Divisions 


35 


legislative  council.  Madras  has  a governor  and  two 
councils,  which  is  also  true  of  the  Bombay  Presidency. 
Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam  has  also  a lieutenant-gov- 
ernor. Aside  from  these  six  principal  divisions,  cer- 
tain provinces  are  governed  by  chief  commissioners,  as 
are  also  the  Central  Provinces — Berar,  Ajmir,  and 
Coorg.  Below  governors,  lieutenant-governors,  and 
chief  commissioners,  are  commissioners.  Provinces 
are  divided  into  districts,  and  these  commissioners 
have  supervision  over  a certain  number  of  districts; 
e.  g.,  Bengal  contained  before  the  division  one  hundred 
and  sixty  thousand  square  miles,  and  had  seventy  mil- 
lion people.  There  were  forty-five  districts  in  this 
province  and  nine  commissioners,  giving  to  each  an 
average  of  five  districts,  though  all  do  not  have  the 
same  extent  of  territory.  The  commissioner  exercises 
supervision  over  the  magistrate  and  collector,  and 
periodically  inspects  their  offices.  At  the  head  of  each 
district  is  a magistrate  and  collector,  who  is  virtually 
king  under  certain  restrictions.  A district  of  the  aver- 
age size  in  Bengal  is  thirty-six  hundred  square  miles, 
nearly  as  large  as  the  State  of  Connecticut,  and  con- 
tains more  than  twice  as  many  people  as  there  are  in 
Connecticut.  Districts  vary  in  size.  Midnapore  has  a 
population  of  two  and  one-half  million ; Balasore  has  a 
population  of  one  million. 

The  duties  of  the  magistrate  and  collector  are  va- 
rious. He  is  supposed  to  exercise  a paternal  care  over 
the  people.  He  must  travel  throughout  his  district 
ninety  days  each  year,  to  find  out  just  what  is  needed. 
He  must  look  over  the  roads,  visit  the  hospitals  and 


36  India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


schools,  examine  the  crops,  see  if  sanitation  is  ob- 
served, provide  supplies  of  rice  and  drinking  water 
if  there  is  a failure,  look  after  the  settlement  or  re- 
measurement of  lands,  which  takes  place  once  in  twenty 
years,  sometimes  settle  disputes  between  large  land- 
holders, receive  distinguished  visitors,  inspect  liquor, 
and  opium,  and  gunja  shops,  etc.,  etc.  He  is  also 
chairman  of  the  District  Board,  and  must  sign  nearly 
every  document.  He  has  many  cases  to  decide  in  court, 
and  sometimes  acts  as  an  arbitrator. 

Districts  are  subdivided.  In  Bengal,  for  example, 
before  the  division  there  were  eighty-one  subdivisions. 
At  the  head  of  each  of  these  is  a deputy  magistrate  and 
collector,  called  also  a subdivisional  officer.  He  is  sub- 
ject to  the  magistrate-collector,  and  refers  matters  to 
him  when  necessary.  These  are  again  subdivided  into 
what  are  called  thannahs.  The  thannah  is  the  unit  in 
the  governmental  and  political  arrangement.  The 
whole  arrangement  is  a wheel  within  a wheel,  and  yet 
the  clock  runs  well  and  keeps  good  time. 

In  each  district  there  is  a kutchery  (courthouse) 
town.  In  this  town  the  officers  of  the  district  usually 
reside,  and  here  is  where  the  treasury  is  found.  Here 
are  many  lawyers,  and  here  is  where  the  people  come 
to  settle  their  grievances.  In  an  ordinary  kutchery 
town  one  will  usually  find  these  officers : ( i ) Magis- 
trate and  collector;  (2)  civil  surgeon.  This  officer  gets 
a fixed  salary  to  attend  to  the  bodily  ailments  of  the 
civil  servants  of  the  government.  He  is  at  liberty  to 
have  also  an  outside  practice.  (3)  Superintendent  of 
public  works.  This  officer  has  general  supervision  of 


Political  Divisions 


37 


canals,  roads,  and  public  buildings.  (4)  Superintend- 
ent of  police.  His  duties  are  to  inspect  the  different 
police  stations  and  keep  the  police  department  in  run- 
ning order  as  nearly  as  possible.  If  the  district  is  a 
large  one,  there  are  also  likely  to  be  some  officers  in  the 
judicial  line,  as  a judge  and  a joint  magistrate.  There 
may  be  also  a superintendent  of  jails.  As  a rule  these 
officials  are  friendly  to  missionaries,  and  invite  them 
occasionally  to  dine  with  them. 

The  officials  mentioned  are  what  are  called  “ society 
people,”  and  missionaries  are  regarded  as  being  on  a 
social  equality  with  them.  The  wives  of  these  officials 
may  also  be  in  the  town,  but  it  is  more  than  probable 
that  some,  if  not  all  of  them,  are  in  England.  All  of 
these  offices  may  be  filled  by  natives,  and  usually  some 
natives  are  found  filling  them.  Aside  from  these  society 
people,  there  are  some  lower-caste  people  filling  minor 
positions,  as  in  the  post-office  and  telegraph  office. 
Quite  often  these  are  filled  by  Eurasians,1  and  some- 
times by  natives.  There  is  also  belonging  to  this  class 
a district  engineer,  a police  inspector,  a deputy  in- 
spector of  schools,  and  one  or  more  salt  inspectors. 
Every  officer  gets  a mileage  for  traveling;  so  many  of 
this  latter  class,  wTho  spend  much  of  their  time  in 
going  from  place  to  place  through  their  district,  add 
largely  to  their  income.  Indeed,  it  is  their  duty  to 
do  this  kind  of  work,  so  they  are  seldom  found  in  the 
stations. 

Almost  every  night  of  the  year  the  Europeans  in 
government  service  meet  together,  either  at  the  club- 


1 Part  European  and  part  Asiatic. 


38 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


house  or  in  some  private  house.  The  time  before  dark 
is  spent  in  tennis  and  conversation,  and  after  dark 
with  music  and  often  dancing.  Most  Englishmen  think 
“ pegging  ” a necessity,  and  many  indulge  to  excess. 
One  of  the  saddest  sights  to  be  seen  in  India  is  so 
many  fine-looking  young  Englishmen  going  down  to 
premature  graves  through  drink.  This  last  remark 
has  no  relation  to  the  government  of  India,  and  yet 
is  true  with  respect  to  many  government  officials.  It 
is  a matter  for  profound  thankfulness  that  “ pegging  ” 
among  the  higher  officials  is  not,  however,  so  frequent 
as  it  was  twenty  years  ago. 

Another  officer  who  is  always  to  be  found  in  a 
kutchery  town  is  a munsiff.  He  is  in  the  judicial  line, 
and  tries  cases  of  a civil  nature.  The  Hindus  are  very 
fond  of  going  to  law,  and  therefore  this  officer  is  a 
hard-worked  man.  His  courtroom  is  open  every  day 
in  the  year,  except  on  legal  holidays,  and  he  seldom  or 
never  gets  his  cases  all  off  the  docket.  There  are  also 
officers  who  look  after  the  revenue.  The  collector  is 
at  the  head  of  this  department,  and  he  has  with  him 
quite  a staff  as  inspectors  and  clerks. 

Perhaps  there  will  be  no  better  place  than  this  to 
make  a few  remarks  upon  this  question.  The  revenue 
of  India  is  $370.518,000 2 : Land  revenue,  $105,- 
460,000;  opium,  $27,611,500;  salt,  $16,533,000; 
stamps,  $22,757,500;  excise,  $32,681,000;  customs, 
$24,343,500;  railways,  $62,454,000;  other  heads,  $78,- 
677,500;  total,  $370,518,000.  Certainly  no  missionary 

2 These  following  are  the  sources  of  revenue,  and  these  figures  are  taken  from  the 
latest  official  report,  1909-1910. 


Political  Divisions 


39 


could  apologize  for  the  opium  and  liquor  trade,  and 
yet  it  will  be  seen  that  the  revenue  from  both  of 
these  sources  is  much  smaller  than  the  revenue  from 
the  railways,  and  not  one-half  of  what  the  revenue  is 
from  land  taxes.  It  cannot,  therefore,  be  said  that 
India  derives  a large  part  of  her  revenue  from  opium 
and  liquor. 

It  is  gratifying  to  note  that  the  revenue  from  opium 
is  ten  millions  of  dollars  less  than  it  was  twenty  years 
ago,  and  that  the  Indian  government  has  entered  into 
an  agreement  with  China  to  curtail  gradually  the  ex- 
portation of  the  drug  to  China,  if  it  sees  that  China  is 
making  an  honest  effort  to  stop  the  growing  of  the 
poppy.  The  tax  on  salt  is  less  than  half  of  what  it 
was  twenty  years  ago,  while  the  revenue  from  the  sale 
of  stamps  and  also  from  railways  has  greatly  in- 
creased. The  unspecified  heads  in  the  table  consist  of 
revenues  from  income  tax,  forests,  post-office,  tele- 
graph, and  an  ad  valorum  duty  of  five  per  cent  on 
imports,  ferries,  pounds,  license  for  carrying  firearms, 
etc.  Some  may  be  curious  to  know  how  salt  is  taxed. 
It  is  simply  in  this  way:  For  every  pound  of  salt 
which  is  imported  from  England,  mined  in  the  coun- 
try, or  evaporated  from  sea  water,  the  government 
requires  a certain  revenue.  There  are  many  places  in 
Orissa  where  salt  water  oozes  up  from  the  ground 
and  is  evaporated  by  the  sun,  leaving  deposits  of  salt. 
It  is  the  duty  of  the  salt  inspectors  to  see  that  none  of 
this  salt  is  gathered  by  the  poor  people,  and  to  see 
that  no  sea  water  is  evaporated  unlawfully.  The 
revenue  from  liquor  and  opium  consumed  by  the 


40 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


people  of  India  amounts  to  nearly  forty  million  dol- 
lars annually.  The  policy  of  the  government  in  fos- 
tering these  industries,  if  we  may  call  them  industries, 
is  to  increase  the  sale  rather  than  to  diminish  it.  If 
the  government  would  put  her  machinery  as  vigor- 
ously at  work  to  repress  these  evils  as  it  does  to  pro- 
hibit the  illicit  making  of  salt,  no  doubt  drinking  and 
opium  eating  could  well-nigh  be  abolished. 

What  I have  said  so  far  about  the  government  of 
the  country  does  not  cover  all  the  ground.  At  the 
head  of  all  this  complicated  machinery  of  government 
is  the  viceroy.  This  officer  was  called  a governor- 
general  under  the  East  India  Company.  He  is  ap- 
pointed by  the  King  of  England  as  his  representative ; 
and  he,  with  his  council,  is  the  highest  legislative  power 
in  India.  His  council  has  two  departments — execu- 
tive and  legislative.  Formerly  there  were  six  mem- 
bers in  the  former  and  in  the  latter  from  twelve  to 
eighteen.  Under  Lord  Morley,  the  late  secretary  of 
State  for  India,  the  legislative  council  was  greatly  en- 
larged. Since  this  was  such  a burning  question  in 
India,  and  occupied  the  attention  of  the  statesmen  of 
England  for  nearly  two  years,  I will  give  in  detail  the 
constitution  of  this  body. 

Those  who  are  deeply  interested  in  Indian  affairs 
will  be  interested  in  this  reform.  It  was  considered 
one  of  the  great  advance  movements  of  the  century  in 
the  Oriental  world. 

I copy  from  the  official  report : 

The  legislative  council  of  the  governor-general  shall  or- 
dinarily consist  of  sixty  members,  of  whom  the  number  of 


Political  Divisions 


41 


elected  members  shall  not  be  less  than  twenty-five,  and  that 
of  members  nominated  by  the  governor-general  shall  not 
exceed  thirty-five.  Of  the  thirty-five  nominated  members 
not  more  than  twenty-eight  may  be  officials,  and  there  shall 
be  selected  non-official  persons,  of  whom  one  shall  represent 
the  Indian  commercial  community,  one  shall  be  from  the 
Mohammedan  community  in  the  Punjab,  and  one  from  the 
landholders  in  the  Punjab. 

The  twenty-five  elected  members  shall  be  elected  as  fol- 
lows: 

By  the  non-official  additional  members  of  the  council  of 
the  governor  of  Fort  St.  George  (Madras),  two  members. 

From  the  same  class  of  the  governor  of  the  Council  of 
Bombay,  two  members. 

From  the  same  class  of  the  council  of  the  lieutenant-gov- 
ernor of  Bengal,  two  members. 

By  the  non-official  members  of  the  council  of  the  lieutenant- 
governor  of  the  united  provinces  of  Agra  and  Oudh,  two 
members. 

By  the  non-official  members  of  the  council  of  the  lieuten- 
ant-governor of  the  Punjab,  one  member. 

By  the  non-official  members  of  the  council  of  the  lieuten- 
ant-governor of  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  one  member. 

By  the  non-official  members  of  the  council  of  the  lieuten- 
ant-governor of  Burma,  one  member. 

By  the  district  councils  and  municipal  committees  in  the 
Central  Provinces,  one  member. 

By  landholders  in  the  presidency  of  Fort  St.  George 
(Madras),  one  member. 

By  landholders  in  the  presidency  of  Bombay,  one  member. 

By  landholders  in  Bengal,  one  member. 

By  landholders  in  the  united  provinces  of  Agra  and  Oudh, 
one  member. 

By  landholders  in  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  one  mem- 
ber. 

By  landholders  in  the  Central  Provinces,  one  member. 

By  the  Mohammedan  community  in  the  presidency  of 
Fort  St.  George  (Madras),  one  member. 

By  the  Mohammedan  community  in  the  presidency  of 
Bombay,  one  member. 


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By  the  Mohammedan  community  in  Bengal,  one  member. 
By  the  Mohammedan  community  of  the  united  provinces 
of  Agra  and  Oudh,  one  member. 

By  the  Mohammedan  community  of  Eastern  Bengal  and 
Assam,  one  member. 

By  the  Bengal  Chamber  of  Commerce,  one  member. 


It  is  seen  from  the  foregoing  constitution  of  the 
viceroy’s  legislative  council,  that  great  pains  has  been 
taken  to  have  all  communities  represented. 

The  viceroy’s  executive  council  is  composed  of  five 
members,  of  whom  three  shall  be  servants  of  the  crown 
of  not  less  than  ten  years’  standing.  Of  the  remaining 
two,  one  shall  be  a barrister,  or  a member  of  the 
faculty  of  Advocates  of  Scotland  of  not  less  than  five 
years’  standing.  The  commander-in-chief  of  his  maj- 
esty’s forces  in  India  can  also  be  appointed  as  an  ex- 
traordinary member  of  the  council,  and  is  generally  so 
appointed. 

The  viceroy  is  usually  a nobleman,  and  is  generally 
a fair-minded  and  capable  man.  His  winter  home  is 
in  Calcutta,  and  his  summer  home  in  Simla,  a beauti- 
ful hill  station  north — up  in  the  Himalaya  Mountains. 
It  is  an  event  in  Calcutta  when  the  viceroy  and  his 
retinue  return  there,  about  December  i ; and  it  is  also 
an  event  in  Simla  when  they  arrive  there  early  in  the 
spring.  He  is  a well-paid  officer,  and  has  the  satisfac- 
tion of  living  in  the  finest  climate  in  the  world  the 
year  through.  But  his  responsibilities  are  great;  for 
in  a measure  the  interests  of  three  hundred  million 
people  are  committed  to  him.  He  must  be  a man  of 
great  diplomatic  ability,  for  there  are  wars  of  greater 


Political  Divisions 


43 


or  less  magnitude  a good  deal  of  the  time,  and  con- 
quered States  or  countries  must  be  reconstructed. 

In  his  winter  tours  he  must  meet  many  of  the  kings 
of  the  protected  States.  In  their  great  durbars,  or 
public  assemblies,  he  must  listen  to  their  speeches  and 
requests,  and  reply  so  as  not  to  give  offense  nor  in 
any  way  commit  himself  if  he  does  not  choose  to.  He 
is  open  to  the  attacks  of  the  native  press,  and  these  are 
often  very  virulent,  for  the  freedom  of  the  native  press 
is  run  wild  in  India.  More  or  less,  he  must  give  public 
receptions,  and  these  must  comport  with  his  standing. 

Through  the  courtesy  of  Gen.  Samuel  Merrill,  who 
was  United  States  consul-general  in  Calcutta  during 
part  of  the  time  we  were  there,  Mrs.  Griffin  and  I had 
an  invitation  to  one  of  these  receptions,  it  happening 
when  we  were  in  Calcutta  on  the  eve  of  our  first  re- 
turn to  America.  The  occasion  was  the  visit  of  the 
Grand  Duke  of  Austria.  It  was  a very  imposing  af- 
fair. Native  kings  were  there,  clothed  in  garments 
literally  covered  with  gold  embroidery  and  precious 
stones ; army  officers,  with  bright  epaulets ; High-church 
officials,  with  their  flowing  robes  and  cardinal  caps; 
and  hundreds  of  Calcutta’s  best  society  people.  The 
splendor  and  glitter  were  quite  dazzling  to  our  uniniti- 
ated eyes.  How  very  weary  Lord  and  Lady  Lans- 
downe  were,  and  how  we  pitied  them!  We  went  away 
feeling  that,  after  all,  we  would  rather  be  simply  mis- 
sionaries to  the  people,  trying  by  teaching  to  lift  them 
up,  than  to  be  the  viceroy  of  India,  who  may  have  the 
same  end  in  view,  but  must  attain  it  through  such 
wearisome  and  conventional  methods. 


44 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


The  crown  also  appoints  a secretary  of  State  for 
India,  a member  of  the  English  cabinet,  who  has  as- 
sociated with  him  a council  of  fifteen  members.  These 
may  annul  the  acts  of  the  viceroy,  or  inaugurate  new 
measures  for  the  benefit  of  the  Indian  people.  As  a 
rule,  harmony  prevails  between  the  viceroy  and  the 
secretary  of  State.  The  latter  with  his  council  re- 
mains in  London.  So  much  for  the  mere  outline  of 
the  machinery  of  government  as  far  as  we  have  gone. 
The  question  of  schools  and  government  relation  to 
them  will  be  spoken  of  later  on. 

This  question  is  frequently  asked  me : “ Are  the 
people  well  governed?  and  are  they  contented  under 
English  rule?”  I confess  I went  to  India  prejudiced 
against  English  rule  there.  I said : “ The  English  are 
there  because  they  have  the  might,  rather  than  the 
right ; and  they  oppress  the  people  so  that  they  may  fat- 
ten on  the  spoils.”  But  I have  changed  my  mind.  The 
people  are  far  better  governed  than  they  could  govern 
themselves.  If  their  government  were  in  the  hands  of 
native  rulers  there  would  be  little  security  for  justice, 
life,  or  property.  For  two  thousand  years,  under  na- 
tive rule,  that  was  about  the  condition  of  things;  and 
native  character  is  no  better  now  than  it  has  been  in 
the  past — at  least  it  is  not  enough  better  to  insure  any- 
thing like  good  government.  All  innocent  natives  to 
this  day  much  prefer  being  tried  by  an  English  official ; 
for  they  expect  justice  so  far  as  an  English  judge  can 
find  out  what  justice  is  in  the  midst  of  so  much  conflict- 
ing evidence.  It  is  true  that  many  of  the  natives  are 
poor,  very  poor;  but  they  are  as  prosperous  and  con- 


Political  Divisions 


45 


tented  as  it  is  possible  for  them  to  be  with  their  igno- 
rance, superstition,  habits  of  life,  religion,  and  the  land 
rent  which  must  be  paid  to  the  landholders  and  to  the 
government.3 

There  has  been  a start  made  toward  self-government 
in  the  organization  of  district  Boards.  These  are 
analogous  to  our  State  legislatures,  wTith,  of  course, 
many  more  limitations.  These  Boards  levy  the  rate  of 
assessment,  appropriate  money  for  roads  and  schools, 
care  for  the  pounds  and  ferries,  and  many  other  things 
of  a similar  nature.  But  as  a body  for  lawmaking,  or 
as  one  having  authority  of  the  internal  affairs  of  the 
district,  it  is  little  more  than  a farce,  as  I can  bear  wit- 
ness after  having  been  a member  of  one  for  seven 
years.  It  is  a very  good  thing,  perhaps,  in  the  way  of 
an  educator,  and  at  times  as  the  source  of  information 
to  the  magistrate,  who  is  also  chairman  of  the  Board; 
but  it  has  no  independent  voice  if  the  chairman  does 
not  agree.  His  wish  is  the  law. 

8 The  one  criticism  upon  British  administration  in  India  is  the  enormous  salaries 
of  officials  and  the  method  of  raising  part  of  this  revenue,  especially  that  part  raised 
by  the  sale  of  liquor,  opium,  and  gunjr..  The  viceroy  of  India  gets  $100,000  a year; 
the  governors  of  Madras  and  Bombay,  each  $50,000;  the  three  lieutenant-governors, 
$45,000  each  ; members  of  the  executive  council  of  the  viceroy,  $35,000  each;  judges 
of  the  high  court,  from  $25,000  to  $30,000;  members  of  the  civil  service,  as  high  as 
$20,000;  military  officers,  from  $2,000  to  $10,000;  medical  officers,  from  $3,000  to 
$12,000.  When  we  remember  that  'where  are  various  other  departments,  as  forest, 
schools,  salt,  river  and  harbor,  railroad,  telegraph,  public  works,  marine,  ecclesiasti- 
cal, etc.,  and  that  proportionably  well-paid  officers  arc  in  all  of  them,  we  see  the 
criticism  is  a just  one.  Though  English  officials  do  receive  enormous  salaries  in  India, 
the  oppression  of  the  land  tenants  is  not  so  great  where  British  rule  prevails  as  where 
native  rule  prevails. 


CHAPTER  IV 

Unrest  in  India 


1WAS  in  India  when  the  first  Indian  National  Con- 
gress was  organized  in  1885.  Its  sitting  was  in 
Bombay.  The  meetings  then  as  now  were  con- 
ducted in  English,  it  being  the  only  language 
which  all  the  educated  people  from  the  different  parts 
of  this  great  country  could  understand.  There  was 
then  as  now  no  test  of  membership,  except  that  the 
members  should  be  in  sympathy  with  the  aims  of  the 
congress.  Then  as  now  there  was  no  system  of  elect- 
ing delegates,  but  every  person  who  wished  to  attend 
and  bear  his  own  expenses  was  permitted  to  enroll 
himself  as  a delegate.  I was  in  sympathy  with  the 
movement,  for  I thought  it  might  go  a long  way  to- 
ward unifying  the  diverse  people  of  the  land,  and 
might  result  in  bringing  to  the  front  the  real  cause  of 
India’s  present  condition.  I was  of  the  opinion  then, 
and  the  years  have  only  intensified  that  opinion,  that 
India’s  greatest  need  was  reform  along  social  lines. 
There  were  some  of  the  most  thoughtful  men  of  In- 
dia who  were  of  the  same  opinion,  and  a Social  Con- 
gress was  attempted  along  with  the  National  Congress. 
But  the  National  Congress,  which  was  purely  political, 
so  absorbed  the  attention  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
members,  that  all  other  issues  were  largely  lost  sight 
of  in  the  loud  clamor  for  political  rights. 

46 


Unrest  in  India 


47 


The  congress  is  divided  into  two  parties  known  as 
“ Moderates  ” and  “ Extremists.”  The  object  of  both 
parties  is  to  criticize  government,  the  one  in  a moder- 
ate way  and  the  other  in  a most  rank,  seditious  way. 

The  Indian  gentlemen  who  support  the  govern- 
ment have  no  place  in  the  National  Congress.  The* 
Moderates  say  we  want  absolute  independence,  but 
we  want  to  bring  it  about  in  a lawful  and  constitutional 
way;  while  the  Extremists  say  we  will  bring  it  about 
by  rebellion  and  revolution  if  necessary. 

The  very  cry  heard  on  so  many  public  occasions 
where  this  class  of  people  are  assembled,  “ Bande 
Mataram,”  is  very  suggestive,  and  calculated  to  stir 
up  the  worst  passions  of  men.  “ Bande  Mataram  ” 
was  the  title  of  a song  composed  some  years  ago  by 
B.  C.  Chatterje,  a Bengali  gentleman,  in  a historical 
novel,  and  was  sung  by  certain  fakirs  when  attacking 
British  troops,  and  always  insured  victory.  It  is  easy 
to  see  what  effect  such  a war  cry  would  have  on  an 
excited  multitude.  It  is  really  a salutation  to  Mother 
Kali,  the  goddess  of  cruelty. 

This  unrest  is  not  confined  to  any  one  place,  but 
seems  to  be  prevalent  all  over  India  among  a certain 
class.  The  causes  are  not  what  the  leaders  of  the 
Indian  National  Congress  would  have  the  people 
think.  It  is  not  that  the  great  mass  of  the  Indian  peo- 
ple are  suffering  wrongs  imposed  by  the  government. 
They  have  great  and  terrible  burdens,  but  they  are 
not  so  great  as  under  either  Hindu  or  Mohammedan 
rule,  and  they  are  not  burdens  which  the  British  or  any 
other  government  could  remove.  They  are  more  of 


D 


48 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


a social  nature,  and  such  as  their  priests  and  landlords 
impose.  If  I quote  .the  words  of  R.  C.  Dutt,  it  will 
have  more  weight  than  any  opinion  of  my  own,  for 
he  was  at  one  time  president  of  the  National  Congress, 
and  was  for  many  years  in  the  India  Civil  Service,  and 
is  a native  of  Bengal  and  a scholar,  historian,  and  poet. 
He  says : “ Without  an  iota  of  education,  or  public 
spirit,  or  desire  to  do  good  to  the  people,  the  typical  vil- 
lage zemindar  (landlord)  considers  it  the  aim  and  ob- 
ject of  life  to  extort  the  last  penny  from  the  impover- 
ished ryot  (tenant).”  Again  he  says:  “Poor  Ben- 
gal ryot!  Hope  for  relief  from  a handful  of  alien 
rulers  of  the  country,  but  from  thine  own  country- 
men— never ! ” 

Some  would  have  us  think  that  this  unrest  is  wide- 
spread and  all  but  universal.  It  is  safe  to  say  that 
nine  out  of  every  ten  of  the  people  of  the  land  know 
nothing  about  the  National  Congress.  Never  heard 
the  word!  Not  one  in  a hundred  is  dissatisfied  with 
their  rulers,  and  not  one  in  a thousand  is  among  the 
agitators.  Among  the  more  prominent  of  the  latter 
are  Surendra  Nath  Banerje  and  Bepin  Chandra  Pal  in 
Bengal.  Mr.  Benerje  is  a fine  orator,  and  was  at  one 
time  connected  with  the  India  Civil  Service,  but  is  now 
most  hostile.  Lala  Rajput  Rai  and  Ajit  Singh,  in 
northern  India,  were  most  revolutionary  in  their  agita- 
tion and  were  recently  transported,  but  afterward  par- 
doned. Sir  Henry  Cotton,  an  M.  P.  in  England,  who 
was  once  commissioner  of  Assam,  and  is  even  now  I 
believe  drawing  a handsome  pension  from  the  Indian 
government,  is  doing  much  to  foster  in  the  minds  of 


Unrest  in  India 


49 


these  agitators  a spirit  of  rebellion.  Keir  Hardie,  a 
Labor  member  of  Parliament,  recently  made  a visit  to 
India,  and  has  probably  done  more  than  any  other  one 
man  to  encourage  these  agitators.  He  was  lionized  by 
the  leaders  of  the  National  Congress,  and  it  is  said  with 
them  shouted  “ Bande  Mataram  ” ! William  Jennings 
Bryan,  who  recently  visited  India,  criticized  adversely 
British  rule  in  India,  which  added  fuel  to  the  fire. 

It  is  impossible  to  find  out  just  what  the  people  who 
clamor  are  clamoring  about.  Bepin  Chundra  Pal  says 
in  his  paper,  “We  want  to  be  absolutely  free  from 
British  control  ’’ ; while  others  say,  “ The  people  do  not 
have  a voice  in  the  affairs  of  the  government  as  do  the 
people  of  other  British  colonies.”  But  this  is  a decla- 
ration more  to  catch  the  public  ear  and  create  sentiment 
than  to  state  a fact.  These  agitators  do  not  want  a 
government  of  the  people,  by  the  people,  and  for  the 
people.  Sir  Henry  Cotton  himself  said : “ The  basis 
of  internal  order  in  India  is  a patrician  aristocracy  of 
indigenous  growth  to  control  and  lead  the  lower 
classes.” 

Would  a “ patrician  aristocracy  ” control  and  lead 
the  people  in  the  interests  of  the  people  as  well  as  they 
are  controlled  now?  The  words  quoted  above  by  Mr. 
Dutt  might  answer  the  question.  Every  man  with  a 
knowledge  of  India  and  its  people  would  unhesitat- 
ingly say  no.  Would  the  constituency  of  Keir  Hardie 
shout  for  this  patrician  aristocracy?  Did  Keir  Hardie 
know  he  was  standing  for  principles,  in  India,  when  he 
shouted  “ Bande  Mataram,”  which  he  denounces  in 
England?  Did  Mr.  Bryan  know  he  was  advocating  a 


50 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


patrician  aristocracy  when  he  denounced  British  rule 
in  India?  Yet  this  is  what  these  agitators  want  in  the 
end.  It  would  still  be  the  few  governing  the  masses, 
and  they  would  rule  them  with  an  iron  hand  for  their 
own  selfish  ends. 

Everybody  who  is  acquainted  with  Indian  affairs 
knows  of  the  disgraceful  row  which  broke  up  the  In- 
dian National  Congress  at  Surat.  If  these  men  could 
not  with  decorum  conduct  a congress  of  this  kind,  how 
could  they  govern  a nation  ? 

In  matters  of  justice  it  has  seemed  to  me,  as  an 
impartial  observer,  that  the  courts  dealt  more  severely 
with  a European  offender  than  with  a native  for  the 
same  offense.  It  is  rare  for  a European  to  escape  if 
he  commits  a crime,  while  the  records  of  the  police 
show  that  not  one  in  a hundred  of  the  natives  who 
commit  murder  are  ever  punished. 

Recently  an  act  has  been  passed  by  the  viceroy’s 
council  making  it  a crime  to  publish  seditious  writings 
or  to  make  seditious  speeches.  The  freedom  of  the 
press  and  of  speech  was  a thing  unknown  in  India 
until  English  rule  permitted  it.  Even  now  in  the  native 
States  there  is  no  such  thing  as  freedom  of  the  press, 
but  in  those  parts  of  India  under  British  rule  the  press 
has  been  until  now  absolutely  unrestricted,  and  they 
have  taken  this  freedom  to  mean  license.  The  most 
seditious  and  revolutionary  utterances  have  been  sent 
broadcast  over  the  land.  Every  officer,  from  the  vice- 
roy down,  has  been  more  or  less  a subject  for  vilifica- 
tion. There  is  not  a civilized  country  on  the  face  of 
the  earth  where  such  language  with  reference  to  the 


Unrest  in  India 


5) 


government  and  its  officers  could  have  been  used  and 
the  offenders  go  unpunished.  These  seditious  utter- 
ances have  been  at  the  bottom  of  all  riots  and  murders. 
The  man  who  threw  the  bomb  at  Muzefferpore,  killing 
two  English  ladies,  has  been  hanged,  and  a true  bill 
has  been  found  against  thirty-four  other  anarchists  in 
Calcutta,  all  growing  out  of  these  seditious  writings. 

I have  talked  with  a number  of  educated  and  influ- 
ential Indian  men  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  and 
with  very  few  exceptions  they  deplore  the  agitation. 
The  great  trouble  has  been  that  those  who  were  satis- 
fied with  present  conditions  have  kept  quiet,  while  the 
dissatisfied  ones  have  made  a great  deal  of  noise,  and 
they  did  it  so  long  without  any  protest  that  they  came 
to  think  that  the  whole  country  was  with  them. 

The  agitators  themselves  have  a very  wrong  concep- 
tion as  to  the  benefits  they  hope  to  derive  from  inde- 
pendence. The  fact  is,  there  are  but  few  thoughtful 
men  among  the  agitators.  Many  of  them  are  young 
men  of  irresponsible  positions.  If  I give  the  gist  of  a 
conversation  between  two  of  these  gentlemen  and  my- 
self it  may  fairly  represent  the  dominant  thought. 
These  were  well-educated  men  and  used  English  per- 
fectly. They  were  around  in  a quiet  way  stirring  up 
seditious  sentiment  in  the  Hindu  villages.  Knowing 
that  I was  in  sympathy  with  the  people  of  the  coun- 
try, for  I was  there  for  only  their  good,  they  came  to 
me  and  wanted  to  speak  in  our  church.  They  began  by 
complimenting  me  on  being  an  American.  A “ citizen 
of  a free  country.”  I said:  “ Yes,  it  is  a free  country 
in  a way.  If  one  does  wrong  he  is  punished  there  the 


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India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


same  as  here.  We  must  pay  our  taxes  in  America  the 
same  as  in  India,  and  if  we  do  not  the  government  will 
seize  and  sell  our  land.  If  we  violate  laws  we  will  be 
taken  before  courts  there  the  same  as  here.  In  fact,” 
I said,  “ I do  not  see  but  you  are  about  as  free  as  we 
are.  Your  life  and  property  are  safely  guarded  here. 
If  you  obey  the  laws  of  the  land  there  is  none  to  molest 
you.”  Then  I said,  “ Suppose  you  were  free  as  you 
wish  to  be,  how  would  you  govern  yourselves  ? ” 

“ We  would  appoint  Surendra  Nath  Banerje  as  our 
king.” 

I told  them  that  he  would  be  the  choice  in  Bengal, 
but  down  in  Madras  it  would  be  some  one  else,  and  over 
in  Bombay  some  one  else,  and  up  in  the  Punjab  still 
another,  and  so  it  would  be  in  all  the  six  provinces  of 
the  country.  And  then  these  kings  would  soon  quarrel, 
and  then  there  would  be  wars  between  them.  This  had 
been  their  history  all  through  the  centuries  of  the  past. 
Then  I pointed  out  to  them,  that  if  they  had  a king  in 
Bengal  they  could  not  run  a government,  because  they 
were  all  divided  up  into  hundreds  of  social  grades,  and 
there  was  no  mutual  trustfulness  nor  any  community 
of  interest.  Then  there  were  often  bitter  feuds  between 
the  Hindus  and  Mohammedans,  and  the  British  sol- 
diers sometimes  had  to  step  in  to  prevent  great  riots. 
I cannot  say  that  they  were  converted,  but  I gave  them 
permission  to  speak  in  the  church  and  not  a word  was 
spoken  about  political  freedom. 

Besides  the  educated  and  influential  men  who  are  in 
sympathy  with  the  government,  there  is  another  class 
of  intelligent  men  who  have  never  come  in  contact  with 


Unrest  in  India 


53 


Western  thought.  These  are  men  in  remote  Hindu  vil- 
lages, who  are  leaders  of  their  people.  I have  never 
talked  with  one  of  these  men  who  did  not  think  that 
it  would  be  a calamity  for  the  British  to  withdraw  from 
India.  It  is  by  no  means  a general  unrest. 


CHAPTER  V 
European  Life  in  Bengal 

BROADLY  speaking,  Europeans  in  India  may 
be  divided  into  two  classes,  viz.,  “ society  peo- 
ple ” and  those  not  in  “ society.”  The  require- 
ments which  admit  one  into  society  are  va- 
rious. Blood  has  something  to  do  with  it.  If  an  in- 
dividual is  of  a certain  standing  in  the  mother  country, 
i.  e.,  if  he  belongs  to  the  “ gentlemen  ” class,  however 
low  down  he  may  commence  in  India  in  the  service, 
he  is  still  in  society.  On  the  other  hand,  if  he  is  made 
of  more  common  clay  he  must  work  up  to  a certain 
salary  before  he  is  admitted.  One  of  our  neighbors  in 
Balasore,  in  the  public  works  department,  toiled  on 
through  the  various  grades,  but  had  nothing  to  do 
with  society  people  in  a social  way.  He  had  a beauti- 
ful wife  and  a nice  family,  but  in  their  evening  drives 
and  in  their  calls  they  in  no  way  mixed  with  people 
outside  their  class.  By  and  by,  through  strict  attention 
to  business,  he  was  promoted  until  his  salary  touched 
the  charmed  number.  This  was  the  “ sesame  ” which 
opened  the  door,  and  henceforth  the  privileges  of  the 
select  few  were  his  to  enjoy.  By  some  rule,  which  I 
never  quite  understood,  missionaries  are  “ in  society.” 
As  such,  they  are  entitled  to  all  the  privileges  of 
society,  as  also  must  they  share  its  burdens.  What 
these  are  we  will  consider  farther  on. 

54 


European  Life  in  Bengal 


55 


To  begin  with,  let  us  look  at  the  life  of  the  non- 
society people.  And  here  too  are  various  grades  and 
such  social  distinctions  that  they  can  hardly  be  spoken 
of  as  a whole  except  that  they  are  all  out  of  society. 

The  greater  number  of  these  non-society  people  are 
“ Eurasians.”  This  is  a word  meaning  part  Euro- 
pean and  part  Asiatic ; i.  e.,  those  in  whose  veins  flows 
the  blood  of  these  two  races  of  people.  And  here  too, 
there  may  be  various  degrees.  I have  seen  Eurasians 
who  wore  the  white  coat  and  pantaloons  and  black 
felt  hat,  or  sola  topie — a dress  which  distinguishes 
them  from  pure  natives,  darker  than  many  natives, 
and  in  fact  as  dark  as  any  native.  But  a sixteenth  or 
a thirty-second  part  of  European  blood  brings  them 
out  of  the  native  class  and  puts  them  with  Eurasians, 
and  they  are  classed,  broadly  speaking,  as  European. 
Many  of  these  are  as  low  in  the  social  and  moral  scale 
as  it  is  possible  to  be.  Some  of  them  live  as  poorly  as 
the  poorest  of  the  natives.  They  are  an  unfortunate 
class  as  a whole,  and  are  one  of  the  problems  for  the 
philanthropist  and  social  reformer.  Many  of  them 
have  but  a taint  of  native  blood,  and  are  highly  re- 
spectable and  useful  members  of  society.  Some  who 
are  half  or  even  more  native  are  good  people  and  in- 
telligent, and  occupy  useful  and  responsible  positions 
both  in  the  government  service,  in  mission  work,  and 
in  business.  In  communities  where  a considerable 
number  are  found  they  have  their  own  society.  They 
meet  for  tennis  and  dinners,  and  in  a general  way  ape 
society  people.  There  are  some  outside  society  of 
pure  European  blood  who  freely  associate  with  the 


56 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


better  class  of  Eurasians.  I have  also  seen  Eurasians 
in  society,  though  but  seldom. 

If  the  Eurasians  are  educated  and  receive  a govern- 
ment or  some  other  appointment,  they  are  fortunate, 
indeed,  for  a competency  is  secured  to  them.  If  not, 
they  are  most  unfortunate,  for  they  cannot  compete 
with  the  native  in  muscular  labor. 

Society  people  are  the  other  class.  This  class  pre- 
sents a brighter  picture,  for  in  no  country  in  the  world 
will  we  find  more  refinement  and  greater  luxury  than 
we  find  in  India  among  society  people.  As  with  non- 
society people  there  are  many  grades,  so  with  society 
people  there  are  great  distinctions  as  to  wealth  and  at- 
tainments and  mode  of  living. 

In  the  chapter  “ How  India  is  Governed,”  I told  of 
some  of  the  different  officers  and  of  their  work,  salary, 
style  of  living,  etc.  Let  us  now,  for  the  time-being, 
forget  any  distinctions  there  may  be  in  the  grades  and 
see  them  as  a whole  in  their  social  and  domestic  life. 
I shall  make  no  attempt  to  describe  European  life  in 
Calcutta.  In  the  first  place,  I am  not  sufficiently  ac- 
quainted with  it;  and,  in  the  next  place,  if  I should  tell 
all  I could,  more  space  would  be  taken  than  the  limits 
of  this  chapter  will  allow.  I do  not  think  that  Cal- 
cutta life  is  really  typical. 

Let  us  take  either  of  the  two  cities  in  which  we  lived, 
Midnapore  or  Balasore.  Both  of  these  are  “ sta- 
tions,” and  are  fairly  representative.  Here  are  a 
judge,  a collector  and  magistrate,  a civil  surgeon,  su- 
perintendent of  jails,  superintendent  of  public  works, 
superintendent  of  police,  it  may  be  a joint  magistrate, 


European  Life  in  Bengal 


57 


and  a number  of  other  minor  officers,  and  the  mis- 
sionaries. 

The  thing  considered  necessary  for  almost  the  very 
existence  of  Europeans  in  India  is  the  early  morning 
exercise.  This  is  usually  in  the  form  of  a drive  or 
horseback  ride.  The  cook  is  on  hand  early  in  the 
morning  to  prepare  the  chota-hazri  (small  breakfast), 
which  consists  of  perhaps  a cup  of  tea  or  chocolate,  a 
banana,  a slice  of  toast,  and  a boiled  egg.  The  syce 
(groom)  is  there  to  get  the  horses  or  ponies  ready,  so 
that  as  soon  as  convenient  one  may  commence  the 
morning  exercise.  A half-hour’s  gallop  on  horseback 
sends  the  blood  bounding  through  the  veins,  and  makes 
one  feel  fresh  and  strong  for  the  work  of  the  day.  Un- 
less duties  are  very  pressing,  most  Europeans  will 
spend  from  one-half  to  an  hour  in  this  kind  of  exercise. 

In  another  chapter  I will  speak  of  the  domestic 
duties  of  the  missionary’s  wife.  What  is  true  of  her 
is  also  true  to  some  extent  of  some  of  the  society 
women,  and  especially  those  of  limited  means.  Others 
pay  but  little  attention  to  domestic  affairs.  They  have 
competent  servants  to  look  after  the  buying  and  the 
preparation  and  serving  of  food.  These  same  servants 
are  also  fully  competent  to  see  that  a proper  share  of 
profits  goes  into  their  own  pockets  (figuratively  speak- 
ing, for  they  have  no  pockets  to  speak  of). 

The  morning  exercises  being  over,  each  man  enters 
upon  the  duties  of  his  office.  I have  also  spoken  of  the 
kutchery.  To  this  you  will  see  the  various  officials 
going  whose  duties  call  them  there.  It  happens  in  some 
parts  of  India  that  for  three  months  they  have  “ morn- 


58 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


ing  kutchery  ” ; i.  e.,  the  offices  and  rooms  of  the  va- 
rious departments  are  open  from  6 a.  m.  to  12  noon. 
This  is  during  the  hottest  months  of  April,  May,  and 
June.  When  there  is  morning  kutchery,  work  is  con- 
tinued until  noon,  when  the  various  officers  go  home 
and  have  their  bath  and  breakfast,  indulge  in  a mid- 
day nap,  and  are  ready  by  5 p.  m.  for  the  evening 
gathering.  This  will  be  as  good  a place  as  any  to  say 
that  every  bedroom  has  a bathroom  attached  to  it. 
The  floors  of  these  are  pucca,  so  that  you  may  use 
water  freely  with  no  fear  that  it  will  leak  through  the 
floor.  There  are  also  conductors  to  carry  the  waste 
water  away.  Usually  in  these  bathrooms  there  is  one 
large  earthen  vessel,  which  will  hold  from  four  to 
eight  pails  of  water,  and  two  or  three  smaller  earthen 
jars.  The  large  vessel  is  placed  on  the  floor,  and  the 
smaller  ones  on  a ledge  which  separates  the  compart- 
ment where  we  bathe  from  that  in  which  we  dress. 
The  bathing  is  done  by  either  pouring  the  water  over 
one  or  by  getting  bodily  in  the  large  vessel,  sometimes 
both  ways.  Some  people  have  a servant  both  to  pour 
the  water  over  them  and  also  to  dry  them,  but  usually 
the  bather  himself  does  this. 

Nine  months  in  the  year  there  is  midday  kutchery; 
i.  e.,  from  10  a.  m.  to  5 p.  m.  In  this  case  bath  and 
breakfast  are  taken  before  going  to  work,  and  often  a 
bath  after  the  day’s  work  is  done. 

Now  let  us  come  to  an  hour  in  the  day  to  which  all 
society  people  look  forward  with  pleasure,  and  for 
which  it  seems  some  of  them  live,  and  but  for  which 
life  in  India  would  to  many  be  an  intolerable  burden. 


European  Life  in  Bengal 


59 


I refer  to  the  evening  meeting  at  the  clubhouse,  if 
there  is  a clubhouse,  or  at  some  official’s  house  if  the 
station  is  too  small  to  afford  a clubhouse.  Usually 
by  five-thirty,  and  often  before,  the  frequenters  of  the 
club  will  begin  to  assemble.  Here  is  a tennis  court,  or 
perhaps  more  than  one,  and  inside  the  building  are  bil- 
liard tables,  tables  for  cards,  sideboards  for  liquor,  ta- 
bles for  dining,  and  a room  for  dancing.  Not  infre- 
quently there  is  a large  field  near-by  for  polo  playing. 
While  daylight  lasts  the  people  are  generally  occupied 
with  tennis,  either  as  active  participants  or  as  specta- 
tors and  commentators  on  the  game.  Some  indulge  in 
conversation.  If  it  happens  to  be  both  gentlemen  and 
ladies  who  are  together,  the  men  think  they  must  oc- 
cupy their  portion  of  the  time  by  “ small  talk  ” to  en- 
tertain the  ladies.  Men  highly  educated  and  capable 
of  conversing  on  almost  any  subject  intelligently  and 
interestingly,  will  stoop  to  the  most  silly  talk  when 
conversing  with  a lady.  I never  understood  the  reason 
for  this.  It  is  not  because  the  ladies  are  not  capable 
of  sensible  conversation,  as  I can  testify  from  personal 
experience. 

There  is  one  peculiarity  of  twilight  in  India,  and 
that  is  that  there  is  almost  none  of  it.  The  sun  may  be 
shining  now,  but  in  a few  moments  it  has  dropped 
behind  the  horizon  and  in  a little  time  it  is  starlight. 
This  fact  in  nature  often  stops  a game  half-played. 
Tea  has  been  served  and  also  something  which  both 
“ cheers  and  inebriates,”  and  now  the  party  sit  in  easy- 
chairs  and  sip  their  tea  and  whisky  and  soda.  There 
are  very  few  men  who  do  not  take  their  “ pegs  ” freely 


60 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


— and  alas!  many  of  them  much  too  freely.  Many  a 
fine  specimen  of  a man  goes  to  an  early  grave  from 
too  much  strong  drink.  His  friends  say,  “ The  beastly 
climate”;  or,  “He  had  a touch  of  his  liver.”  The 
climate  is  chargeable  with  many  things  for  which  it 
is  not  to  blame. 

The  ladies  also  frequently  indulge,  and  some  of 
them  even  to  excess.  Of  course,  they  do  not  get  drunk 
or  disorderly,  by  any  means,  but  I have  seen  them 
visibly  influenced  by  wine  and  brandy  and  water.  In 
our  own  station,  for  example,  the  evening  was  spent 
by  society  people  in  singing,  banjo  or  piano  playing, 
billiards,  and  sometimes  cards. 

Station  dinners  are  frequent;  or,  if  not  for  the 
whole  station,  for  smaller  parties.  To  these  dinners 
missionaries  are  frequently  invited,  and  would  no 
doubt  be  more  frequently  invited  if  they  would  more 
often  accept  the  invitations.  When  the  lieutenant- 
governor  or  any  high  official  visits  the  station  there 
is  usually  a State  dinner,  and  at  these  functions  after- 
dinner  toasts  are  the  proper  thing.  Sometimes  the 
people  indulge  in  small  theatricals,  and  some  very 
creditable  playing  is  done.  To  be  as  happy  and  jolly 
as  possible,  and  have  the  days  swiftly  speed  by,  is 
the  desire  of  the  heart  of  nearly  every  English  official 
in  India.  I would  not  say  that  they  are  faithless  in 
the  discharge  of  their  duty.  On  the  other  hand,  they 
are,  as  a rule,  faithful  in  the  work  given  them  to  do. 

Society  people  in  India,  like  those  of  England,  are 
very  particular  concerning  matters  of  etiquette.  For 
example,  if  a person  comes  into  the  station  it  is 


European  Life  in  Bengal 


61 


proper  for  him  to  call  on  all  the  people  in  the  station 
of  his  class.  If  he  does  not  call  on  any  families  he 
has  told  them  plainly  that  he  does  not  care  for  any 
social  intercourse  with  them.  We  will  say  that  the 
newcomer  has  moved  into  the  station.  He  may  be 
the  magistrate.  Almost  the  first  thing,  he  will  mount 
his  dog-cart  and  make  his  calls.  He  drives  up  to 
the  door  and  hands  his  card  to  the  servant  he  may  see. 
The  servant,  even  though  he  is  a sweeper,  understands 
the  meaning  of  this,  for  the  native  servants  are  quick 
to  catch  on  to  European  etiquette.  The  servant  hands 
the  card  to  the  lady  of  the  house  if  there  is  one,  if  not, 
then  to  the  gentleman,  and  a “ salaam  ” is  usually 
taken  back  by  this  same  servant.  The  word  salaam 
is  a common  one  in  India  and  has  many  meanings. 
Sometimes  it  means  “ thank  you,”  or  it  may  mean 
“ you  are  welcome,”  or  it  may  mean  a rebuke.  In 
this  case  it  means,  “ tell  the  gentleman  to  enter.” 
Gentlemen  always  rise  to  meet  gentlemen  or  ladies. 
The  man  makes  but  a short  call,  but  he  has  done  his 
duty  and  opens  the  way  for  you  to  call  on  him.  On 
leaving,  people  never  say,  “ Now  come  and  see  me.” 
You  are  expected  to  go  and  see  them.  If  you  do  not, 
the  way  is  barred  for  any  further  social  relations. 
Sometimes  there  is  a good  deal  of  jealousy  in  a sta- 
tion, and  especially  if  a high  official  comes  and  leaves 
out  some  of  the  people  from  his  list  of  expected  calls. 
If  a man  and  his  wife  call,  or  a larger  party,  a servant 
is  ordered  to  bring  on  tea  and  biscuit,  and  the  whole 
party  will  sit  about  the  teapoys  (tables)  and  sip  the 
delicious  India  tea  from  delicate  china  teacups. 


62 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


The  biscuits  are  imported  from  England  and  Australia 
in  hermetically  sealed  tins,  and  are  of  different  brands 
and  very  palatable.  In  all  well-regulated  households  a 
quantity  of  these  is  always  on  hand. 

The  matter  of  personal  appearance  is  as  much  sub- 
ject to  society  rules  as  anything  else.  A lady  must 
not  be  seen  by  callers  in  a loose  morning  gown  though 
it  completely  cover  her  person,  while  exceedingly  low 
neck  and  short  sleeves  are  all  right  for  an  evening 
party.  A gentleman  will  not  come  into  the  presence  of 
a lady  in  his  shirt-sleeves,  unless  it  be  at  tennis,  and 
then  a white  flannel  shirt  and  no  coat  is  quite  proper. 
If  your  shoes  are  canvas  and  white,  they  should  be 
made  more  so  by  applications  of  whiting ; if  black,  the 
leather  should  be  clean  and  shining.  It  is  almost  an 
unpardonable  sin  to  appear  in  company  with  one’s 
shoes  not  properly  cleaned.  These  things  are  not 
matters  of  taste,  but  standards  by  which  men  are 
measured. 

European  life  in  India  would  be  far  from  complete 
with  no  reference  to  the  children.  In  the  first  place, 
there  is  no  doubt  but  the  children  are  left  far  too 
much  to  the  care  of  the  native  servants.  The  girl 
baby  or  child  will  have  a female  attendant  (ayah), 
and  the  boy  a male  attendant  (bearer). 

These  do  all  the  labor  connected  with  the  care  of 
the  children.  They  dress  and  undress  them,  feed 
them,  bathe  them,  put  them  to  bed,  go  with  them 
for  rides,  drives,  and  walks,  keep  them  out  of  the 
sun,  play  with  them,  receive  the  approval  or  disap- 
proval of  the  children  with  meekness,  and  often  their 


European  Life  in  Bengal 


63 


blows  in  silence.  These  servants  are  supposed  to  take 
the  best  of  care  of  the  children,  who  in  turn  become 
veritable  little  tyrants.  It  often  happens  that,  when 
the  parents  suppose  the  children  are  having  a delight- 
ful morning  outing  in  the  fresh  air,  they  are  off  down 
in  the  native  village  at  the  home  of  the  ayah  or  bearer, 
breathing  the  foul  air  ever  present  in  these  places.  If 
foul  air  were  all  they  inhaled,  it  would  not  be  so  bad, 
but  vile  conversation  is  often  heard  and  unchaste  sights 
i are  seen,  until  the  young  life  is  contaminated  before  it 
1 ;s  able  even  to  reason  or  scarcely  talk.  If  the  child  is 
restless  or  fretful,  the  chances  are  that  opium  will  be 
i administered  on  the  sly,  for  many  of  the  natives  think 
; opium  is  a medicine  which  will  cure  all  ills.  Eternal 
I vigilance  on  the  part  of  the  parents  is  the  price  of  the 
health  and  morals  of  European  children  born  and 
reared  in  India. 

It  is  generally  customary  for  the  mother  to  take  the 
children  home  to  England,  and  stay  with  them  during 
the  school  days.  Now,  however,  there  are  excellent 
schools  in  Darjeeling,  Nina  Tal,  and  Landour  for 
European  children,  and  the  climate  is  all  that  one  can 
desire.  But  the  moral  influence  one  can  only  escape 
by  leaving  the  country. 

To  put  in  a single  chapter  of  twenty  pages  or  less 
what  might  fill  a volume  is,  of  course,  impossible.  I 
have  given  a glance  at  the  landscape.  We  catch  the 
prominent  points,  the  hilltops,  the  lakes,  and  streams, 
and  deep  gorges,  but  the  details — the  trees  and  grass, 
the  houses,  fences,  and  flowers — we  must  leave  imagi- 
nation to  supply. 


E 


CHAPTER  VI 


Roads , Highways,  and  Waterways 

INDIA  is  a country  of  extremes,  and  the  statements 
made  by  different  people  are  so  very  different  that 
we  often  think  somebody  is  stretching  the  truth. 
It  is  safe  to  say  that  India  has  the  worst  and  the 
best  roads  in  the  world.  As  an  illustration,  let  me  give 
a bit  of  personal  experience : At  one  time  I wanted  to 
visit  a bungalow,  or  rest-house,  which  was  in  quite  a 
remote  part  of  the  district.  Near  this  bungalow,  as  is 
very  often  the  case,  was  a police  outpost  and  thannah. 
The  name  of  the  place  was  Bhograi.  I had  never  been 
there,  so  I knew  nothing  of  the  road,  but  was  told  by 
several  natives  about  there  that  it  was  only  six  miles 
from  where  I was  camping,  that  the  road  leading  to  the 
place  was  good,  and  that  I would  have  no  trouble  in 
reaching  my  destination. 

Traveling  in  the  middle  of  the  day  is  not  safe  at  any 
season  of  the  year  on  account  of  the  heat,  so  I waited 
until  about  3 p.  m.  before  starting.  I took  with 
me  a bhangy  wallah,  which  means  a man  with  a bam- 
boo pole  across  his  shoulder,  to  the  ends  of  which  are 
suspended  by  means  of  ropes  two  burdens  of  equal 
weight.  This  man  went  to  carry  provisions,  -water, 
and  some  blankets  for  bedding.  I had  also  a cook 
with  a few,  very  few,  cooking  utensils,  and  a man  to 
look  after  the  pony.  Two  of  my  native  preachers 
64 


Roads,  Highways,  and  Waterways 


65 


were  with  me.  I mounted  the  pony  and  away  we 
started  in  fine  style. 

We  had  not  gone  more  than  a mile  before  we  came 
to  a large  tidal  river,  and  as  there  was  no  way  to  get 
the  horse  across  except  to  swim  him,  which  was  un- 
safe on  account  of  the  deep  mud  on  either  side,  I sent 
him  back  with  the  man  who  cared  for  him,  and  the 
rest  of  us  got  in  a dugout  and  crossed  the  river.  Be- 
fore I could  land  I had  to  take  off  my  shoes  and  stock- 
ings and  roll  my  pantaloons  up  as  far  as  possible. 
This  was  made  necessary  on  account  of  the  deep  mud 
through  which  we  must  wade  before  getting  on  dry 
ground.  We  helped  each  other,  and  wallowed  through 
as  best  we  could.  I found  a place  to  wash  my  feet  and 
legs,  and  putting  on  my  shoes  we  started  out  briskly 
for  our  bungalow,  which  was  now  but  five  miles  away. 

We  had  not  gone  very  far  over  the  rice  fields  be- 
fore we  came  to  a tidal  khal.  These  are  natural 
canals  making  back  from  the  rivers  and  the  sea.  When 
the  tide  is  in  they  are  full,  and  when  out  they  are 
empty.  There  is  always  plenty  of  mud  in  the  bottom. 
This  time  the  mud  and  the  water  were  a foot  deeper 
than  we  had  calculated  on,  with  a corresponding  re- 
sult to  our  clothing.  As  we  found  these  khals  nu- 
merous, we  gave  up  putting  on  and  taking  off  shoes 
and  stockings ; and,  barefoot  and  with  shoes  and  stock- 
ings in  hand,  we  went  on,  winding  now  through  the 
narrow  street  of  a village,  again  through  a khal,  and 
then  through  a rice  field,  and  did  not  reach  our  bunga- 
low until  nine  o’clock.  We  found  it  stripped  of  every 
piece  of  furniture;  so,  getting  a few  sheaves  of  rice- 


66 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


straw  from  the  village,  we  made  our  bed  upon  the  hard 
stone  floor  and  rested,  contemplating  the  luxury  of 
traveling  over  “ good  roads.” 

To  reach  most  of  the  Hindu  villages  of  southern 
Bengal  during  the  rainy  season,  one  would  pass 
through  a similar  experience.  The  produce  is  taken 
in  and  out  on  the  backs  of  bullocks,  the  shoulders  of 
men,  and  the  heads  of  the  women;  and  one  may  look 
in  almost  any  direction,  and  he  will  see  these  coming 
and  going  over  the  little  winding  dams,  which  separate 
the  small  rice  fields  from  each  other.  These  are  the 
lowest  grade  of  roads,  and  constitute  three-fourths  of 
all  the  roads. 

The  next  higher  class  of  roads  are  the  kancha  roads 
of  the  country.  Let  us  understand  the  words  kancha 
and  pucca  before  we  go  any  farther,  for  they  are  such 
significant  words  that  they  have  become  Anglicized. 
Kancha  means  incomplete,  and  pucca  the  opposite. 
Kancha  may  be  applied  to  a poor  road,  to  unripe  fruit, 
to  a man  who  lacks  a little  in  intelligence,  to  a poorly 
constructed  house,  or  to  a poor  job  of  work  of  any 
kind.  The  greater  portion  of  the  country  roads  of 
America  would  be  called  kancha  in  India.  These  roads 
may  be  found  every  five  or  six  miles  apart,  leading 
out  from  some  larger  village  to  a main  trunk  road, 
which  runs,  I think,  through  every  district  in  the 
country. 

One  is  liable  to  many  different  kinds  of  experiences 
in  traveling  over  these  roads.  In  Bengal  they  are 
usually  narrow  turnpikes,  and  the  bridges  are  quite 
often  made  of  wood.  The  floods  may  wash  the  turn- 


Bringing  in  rice  sheaves  from  the  field 


Bringing  rice  to  market 


Roads,  Highways,  and  Waterways 


67 


pike  away,  or  the  natives  may  steal  the  planks  from 
the  bridge.  If  one  starts  with  an  ox-cart  or  a horse- 
cart  over  one  of  these  roads,  he  is  not  quite  sure  how 
far  he  can  go.  Especially  is  this  true  in  the  rains,  or 
immediately  after  the  rains. 

But  when  we  come  to  the  pucca  roads,  we  come  to 
the  best  that  can  be  made.  Take  the  pilgrim  road  for 
an  example.  It  starts,  we  might  say,  as  far  up  as 
Delhi,  and  runs  down  through  the  country  to  Puri. 
It  is  a thousand  miles  long.  The  roadway  is  from  one 
hundred  to  a hundred  and  fifty  feet  wide,  and  the  turn- 
pike is  forty  feet  wide,  and  from  two  to  ten  feet  high. 
It  has  metal  put  upon  it,  either  gingta,  a hard  nugget 
of  limestone,  or  laterite,  a mixture  of  iron  and  stone. 
These  are  spread  upon  the  road,  then  thoroughly  satu- 
rated, and  beaten  down  by  men  with  iron  beaters  and 
allowed  to  bake  in  the  hot  sun.  This  is  a pucca  road, 
and  is  almost  as  hard  and  smooth  as  dressed  stone. 

Peepul,  banyan,  and  mango  trees  are  planted  along 
the  roadside,  so  as  to  furnish  grateful  shelter  to  the 
traveler.  Many  of  these  were  planted  years  ago  by 
the  government,  and  are  now  so  large  that  they  form 
in  places  beautiful  avenues.  All  of  the  public  roads 
are  built  and  maintained  by  the  government.  People 
do  not  pay  their  road  tax  by  doing  a day’s  work  as  at 
home,  and  then  putting  in  a day  on  the  road,  all  inside 
of  fifteen  hours.  One  path-master  does  not  throw  up 
an  embankment  and  another  tear  it  down,  but  compe- 
tent engineers  have  charge,  the  work  is  let  by  contract, 
and  when  completed  it  is  inspected.  No  one  who  is 
acquainted  with  Indian  character  and  ways  of  doing 


68 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


things  will  say  that  the  money  appropriated  is  all 
honestly  expended;  but  it  is,  comparatively  speaking, 
fairly  well  expended,  and  the  good  roads  are  kept  in 
good  order,  and  other  roads  are  being  constantly  im- 
proved. The  bridges  on  these  turnpike  roads  are  either 
iron  or  brick,  and  very  substantial. 

No  description  of  a road  would  be  complete,  es- 
pecially for  Bengal,  without  reference  to  the  ferries. 
We  must  bear  in  mind  that  this  part  of  the  country  is 
level,  and  the  banks  of  the  rivers  are  usually  low,  so 
the  difficulty  of  making  bridges  is  great.  Then  again, 
the  very  heavy  rains  fill  these  more  than  full,  so  that 
sometimes  they  are  many  times  their  usual  width. 
Therefore  ferries  are  in  most  places  substituted.  Do 
not  think  of  a Brooklyn  ferry,  or  even  of  a Western 
river  ferry  of  this  country,  with  an  anchorage  up 
stream,  but  of  a ferry  propelled  by  men  with  long  bam- 
boo poles,  whose  principal  business  is  not  to  see  how 
quickly  they  can  get  you  across  the  stream,  but  rather 
to  see  how  much  time  they  can  consume,  and  how  much 
baksheesh  they  can  get  out  of  you.  This,  of  course, 
does  not  include  the  toll  for  the  use  of  the  ferry.  As 
one  side  at  least  of  almost  every  river  has  a low,  sandy 
bottom,  the  ferry  is  propelled  until  the  bottom  strikes 
the  sand;  then  planks  are  put  down,  and  the  cart  and 
carriage  are  run  out  into  the  water,  and  the  traveler 
sits  on  the  hands  of  the  boatmen,  who  unite  their 
strength  to  carry  him  out  to  dry  ground.  We  do  not 
so  much  object  to  putting  our  arms  around  the  neck 
of  each  of  these  men,  but  sometimes  the  ladies  would 
rather  be  excused.  But  it  must  be  done,  all  the  same. 


Roads,  Highways,  and  Waterways 


69 


Then  the  sand  is  deep  and  wide,  and  the  oxen  or  horses 
cannot  draw  the  load,  and  must  therefore  be  assisted. 
These  boatmen  are  always  ready,  for  a consideration, 
to  help  turn  wheels.  Europeans  can  get  across  rather 
quickly,  say  in  from  one  to  two  hours,  but  sometimes 
the  poor  native  cartmen  have  to  sit  in  the  sand  from 
six  to  eight  hours,  awaiting  their  turn. 

Aside  from  roads,  the  government  has  made  canals 
as  highways  in  many  places.  Some  of  these  answer  the 
double  purpose  of  a watercourse  for  boats,  and  irriga- 
tion for  the  rice  fields,  and  some  are  for  irrigation 
alone.  Both  classes  of  canals  irrigate  thirty  million 
acres.  Any  man  has  the  privilege  of  putting  a boat 
on  the  canal,  but  must  pay  a lock  fee  according  to  the 
capacity  of  his  boat  and  the  distance  he  goes. 

Among  the  provisions  made  by  the  government  for 
its  officers  are  rest-houses  along  these  roads  and  canals. 
These  are  called  bungalows  and  are  classified  as 
inspection  bungalows  and  dak-bungalows.  At  the 
latter  a cook  is  kept,  and  one  can  always  order  a 
meal.  At  the  former  one  must  furnish  his  own  cook 
and  food.  There  are  very  few  dak-bungalows  in 
Bengal.  These  buildings  are  situated  on  as  desirable  a 
site  as  can  be  found,  and  are  about  ten  miles  distant 
from  each  other.  They  are  generally  divided  into  two 
apartments,  each  consisting  of  one  room  and  a bath- 
room. The  furniture  for  each  apartment  consists  of 
one  bedstead,  one  table,  two  or  three  chairs,  and  some- 
times a stand  and  a commode,  and  a large  earthen  jar 
for  bathroom  purposes.  In  traveling,  therefore,  a per- 
son must  take  with  him  his  bedding,  food,  light,  water 


70 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


for  drinking,  and  anything  else  he  may  need  in  a jour- 
ney. At  any  time  of  the  day  or  night  he  may  go  to 
one  of  these  bungalows,  call  up  the  watchman,  and  take 
possession,  providing  the  building  is  unoccupied.  The 
right  of  occupancy  depends  upon  the  grade  of  the 
officers  occupying  it.  Any  European  has  a right  to 
the  building,  if  unoccupied,  by  paying  one  rupee  a day. 
When  five  or  six  people  wish  to  stay  at  one  bungalow 
over  night,  where  there  are  only  two  beds,  some  amu- 
sing and  interesting  experiences  take  place. 

The  only  time  I ever  was  in  jail  over  night  was  on 
an  occasion  of  this  kind.  We  were  going  to  our  an- 
nual meeting  at  Midnapore.  There  were  six  of  us  in 
company,  and  we  had  planned  to  stop  at  a certain  bun- 
galow. We  thought  our  large  wagon  would  furnish  a 
bedroom  for  two,  and  the  two  beds  of  the  bungalow 
would  do  for  the  rest  of  us.  As  we  came  near  the 
bungalow,  tired  and  hungry,  the  shades  of  night  were 
gathering.  We  congratulated  ourselves  that  food, 
shelter,  and  rest  were  not  far  away,  but  a little  closer 
view  disclosed  the  fact  that  the  building  was  full  to 
overflowing  of  English  officials  and  their  wives.  We 
moved  on  to  the  bazaar,  took  our  supper  under  a tree, 
and  found  a shelter  for  ourselves ; i.  e.,  we  men  in  the 
jail  near-by,  while  the  ladies  slept  in  the  wagon. 

RAILWAYS. 

. The  first  railroad  in  India  was  completed  in  1853. 
It  ran  from  Bombay  to  Tanna,  a distance  of  three 
miles.  During  the  mutiny  of  1857-1858  the  govern- 


Roads,  Highways,  and  Waterways  71 


ment  saw  how  badly  it  was  crippled  for  want  of  means 
to  transport  the  soldiers,  and  firmly  resolved  that  if 
the  country  should  ever  see  another  mutiny  it  would 
not  be  thus  unprepared.  As  soon,  therefore,  as  the 
mutiny  closed,  the  scheme  of  Lord  Dalhousie,  which 
had  previously  been  before  the  country,  was  at  once 
acted  upon.  This  plan  was  to  have  a few  trunk  lines 
traverse  the  country,  connecting  the  large  cities  and 
the  military  stations,  and  then  construct  shorter  roads, 
as  feeders,  to  connect  with  these.  From  that  small 
beginning  of  1853  work  has  gradually,  but  for 
India  rapidly,  extended.  In  1878  there  were  eight 
thousand  miles  of  railroad,  and  in  1890  sixteen  thou- 
sand miles. 

It  may  be  of  interest,  since  this  part  of  the  public 
works  has  advanced  so  rapidly,  and  since  govern- 
ment critics  have  made  so  much  of  the  way  the  rail- 
ways are  exploiting  the  people,  to  speak  more  fully  of 
these.  The  statesmen  of  India  saw  that  railways  were 
a necessity  if  the  country  was  to  be  developed.  All 
must  now  admit  it,  though  at  the  commencement  a 
tremendous  opposition  was  manifested  on  the  part  of 
the  people.  Indeed,  it  is  fairly  presumed  that  the 
building  of  the  first  railway  had  more  to  do  with  pre- 
cipitating the  mutiny  than  any  other  one  thing.  Now 
all  the  people  see  their  great  advantage.  Seeing  the 
necessity  was  one  thing,  and  building  the  roads  another. 
The  native  gentlemen  of  means  would  not  put  their 
money  into  anything  so  uncertain  as  a railway.  Eng- 
lishmen were  afraid  to  invest,  for  they  had  no  assur- 
ance that  the  people  of  the  country  would  patronize  a 


72 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


railway.  At  length  the  following  plans  were  evolved. 
There  are  four  distinct  plans  by  which  railways  are 
built,  so  far  as  the  funds  are  concerned : 

1.  “ Guaranteed  lines.”  The  government  said  to 
capitalists : “ You  build  a railway  through  a certain 
section  of  the  country,  and  we  will  guarantee  you  four 
per  cent  and  in  some  cases  five  per  cent  on  your  invest- 
ment. We  reserve  the  right  to  have  a director  on  the 
Board  to  look  after  our  interests.  We  shall  also  have 
half  of  the  percentage  over  and  above  your  guaranteed 
interest.  We  also  reserve  the  right  to  take  over  the 
road  after  the  expiration  of  the  time  for  which  we 
have  guaranteed  you  the  interest,  by  paying  to  you  the 
cash  you  have  actually  invested.”  This  was  a fair 
proposition,  and  secured  some  of  the  best  roads  there 
are  in  the  country. 

2.  “ State  lines.”  These  are  built  by  the  govern- 
ment outright.  It  equips  the  road,  and  in  some  cases 
runs  it.  In  other  cases  the  road  is  leased  for  a term 
of  years. 

3.  “ Assisted  lines.”  The  government  makes  certain 
guarantees  with  reference  to  interest,  but  each  road 
proposed  is  considered  by  itself,  and  assisted  according 
to  the  merits  of  the  case. 

4.  “ Native  State  railways.”  These  are  built  by  the 
kings  or  rajahs  of  independent  native  States. 

I have  said  that  the  government  reserved  the  right 
to  buy  back  the  roads.  As  a matter  of  fact,  the  gov- 
ernment has  taken  back  eight  of  the  best-paying  roads 
of  the  country.  The  East  India,  the  finest  road  in  the 
country,  was  taken  over  in  1880,  and  the  Great  North- 


Roads,  Highways,  and  Waterways  73 


ern  Peninsula,  with  its  three  thousand  miles  of  track, 
in  1900.  In  most  cases  the  old  companies  are  working 
the  lines  on  a percentage. 

The  roads  are  well  built.  Steel  rails  weighing  from 
seventy-five  to  eighty-five  pounds  per  yard  are  laid,  and 
the  ties  are  for  the  most  part  iron  “ chairs.”  The 
average  rate  of  all  classes  of  passengers  is  less  than 
one-half  a cent  per  passenger  per  mile.  This  low  aver- 
age is  reached  by  the  great  bulk  of  the  travel  being 
third-class,  but  the  rate  in  the  intermediate  is  less  than 
one  cent  per  mile,  and  these  are  very  comfortable  com- 
partments. 

Notwithstanding  these  low  rates,  the  average  of 
all  the  roads  in  India  pays  over  five  per  cent  on  the 
investment.  Some  pay  ten  per  cent.  One  may  argue 
that  cheap  labor  may  account  for  it.  But  there  are 
seventeen  thousand  European  employees,  and  the  pay 
of  these  is  large. 

Last  year  there  were  two  hundred  and  seventy-one 
million  passengers,  who  traveled  on  an  average  forty 
miles  each,  and  only  one  hundred  and  sixty-four  of 
these  passengers  were  killed.  Add  together  the  killed 
passengers,  employees,  and  suicides,  and  there  is  a total 
of  one  thousand  six  hundred  and  fourteen. 

Under  Lord  Curzon  six  thousand  two  hundred  and 
fifty-five  miles  were  built,  and  under  his  successor,  Lord 
Minto,  about  four  thousand  miles.  There  are  now 
thirty  thousand  miles  completed  and  several  thousand 
in  process  of  construction. 

The  platform  at  each  station  is  as  long  as  the  train, 
and  is  considerably  elevated  above  the  track  for  the 


74 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


whole  length.  In  the  more  important  stations,  it  is 
nearly  on  a level  with  the  floor  of  the  “ carriages,”  and 
so  is  very  convenient. 

When  the  train  comes  to  a halt  the  guards  open  the 
doors,  and  the  passengers  get  in  and  out.  Those  get- 
ting in  are  looking  for  their  “ class  ” ; for  the  train  has 
usually  four  classes  of  carriages.  First-class  is  very 
fine — more  commodious  than,  and  fully  as  elegant,  as 
our  drawing-room  cars.  The  second-class  is  only  half 
the  price  of  the  first,  and  is  good  enough  for  any  per- 
son. The  intermediate  costs  half  the  price  of  the 
second,  and  is  very  good.  Most  missionaries  ride  in 
these  compartments.  Eight  people  can  sit  in  one,  but 
so  few  Europeans  travel  intermediate  that  usually  each 
one  can  have  a whole  seat  to  himself  when  sleeping- 
time comes,  for  there  are  two  shelves  above  which  can 
be  let  down  for  this  purpose.  If  the  compartment  hap- 
pens to  be  full,  one  does  not  sleep  in  very  much  com- 
fort; but  even  then  there  is  more  room  than  in  a sin- 
gle seat  in  an  American  car. 

The  next  class  below  is  third-class,  and  the  price  is 
but  half  the  intermediate.  The  seats  are  simply 
boards,  and  the  people  are  usually  so  crowded  that 
lying  down  is  impossible.  They  are  necessarily  com- 
partments for  zenana  women.  All  third-class  pas- 
sengers, whether  coolies  or  Brahmins,  are  hustled  into 
their  places  as  soon  as  the  cars  stop.  At  first  the 
Brahmin  looked  horror-stricken  at  being  put  in  the 
same  compartment  with  a low-caste  man,  but  he  must 
go  all  the  same.  High  and  low  have  found  that  no 
harm  comes  to  either  by  sitting  together,  so  the  rail- 


Roads,  Highways,  and  Waterways 


75 


roads  have  not  only  afforded  cheap  facilities  for  travel, 
but  have  been  a great  educator. 

RIVERS 

No  one  can  look  at  a map  of  India  without  being 
impressed  with  the  thought  of  how  important  a part 
the  rivers  form  of  the  great  highway  for  commerce. 
Probably  there  is  no  river  in  the  world  where  such  a 
variety  of  shipping  can  be  found  as  on  the  Ganges 
River,  between  Calcutta  and  the  sea. 

The  Ganges  River  is  larger  than  the  Mississippi, 
and  the  Indus  is  one  of  the  great  rivers  of  the  world. 
The  Brahmaputra,  though  carrying  a less  volume  of 
water  than  the  Ganges,  is  about  as  long.  In  fact, 
these  three  rivers  rise  near  the  same  place,  though  they 
drain  nearly  all  India.  There  are  a few  large  rivers 
which  empty  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal  on  the  east  coast, 
but  these  do  not  compare  with  the  rivers  mentioned. 
One  strange  thing  about  these  latter  is  that  at  their 
mouth  there  is  no  harbor.  There  is  not  one  natural 
harbor  on  the  whole  east  coast  of  Bengal. 

In  another  chapter  I have  spoken  of  the  boatmen. 


CHAPTER  VII 


Architecture 

WHAT  kind  of  houses  do  they  have  in  In- 
dia ? ” I could  not  answer  that  question 
in  a single  sentence.  In  general,  the  houses 
may  be  divided  into  pucca  and  kancha. 
These  words  are  used  in  the  same  sense  as  when  ap- 
plied to  roads.  Then  there  are  peculiar  styles  of  build- 
ings, according  to  the  use  which  is  to  be  made  of  them. 
The  mosques  and  tombs  of  the  Mohammedans  are  not 
at  all  like  the  temples  of  the  Hindus.  Minarets,  round- 
topped,  cone-shaped  domes,  and  arches  characterize  the 
former,  while  sharper  pinnacles  and  domes  characterize 
the  latter.  In  large  cities  there  are  blocks  not  very  dif- 
ferent in  appearance  from  buildings  in  England  and 
America.  There  are  some  very  beautiful  buildings  in 
all  of  these  three  styles. 

The  greater  number  of  the  Hindu  temples  are  built 
of  brick,  and  plastered  with  lime-and-sand  mortar  out- 
side and  in,  on  the  walls.  Generally,  in  addition  to 
the  plaster,  there  are  figures  in  stucco  work  both  in- 
side and  outside,  representing  different  things  in  their 
mythology  and  sacred  books.  According  to  our  tastes, 
these  figures  often  represent  lewd  subjects. 

The  better  class  of  native  gentlemen’s  houses  are 
built  of  the  same  material  as  the  temples.  Very  little 
wood  is  used  in  the  construction  of  any  of  these  build- 
76 


A typical  house  of  the  wealthy  class,  Bengal 


A temple  of  Juggernath 


Architecture 


77 


ings,  and  in  temples  often  none  at  all.  Where  doors 
are  required,  scantlings,  four  inches  square,  are  taken 
to  make  the  frames  for  the  same.  These  are  tarred  to 
keep  the  white  ants  from  eating  them,  and  so  put  to- 
gether that  the  ends  at  the  top  and  bottom  fit  into  the 
solid  brick  wall  a foot  or  more.  All  partitions  are 
made  of  brick  from  the  foundation,  the  same  as  the 
outer  walls,  and  built  up  with  them.  The  floor  is 
made  by  first  putting  in  earth  enough  to  raise  it  up  a 
foot  or  more  above  the  level  of  the  ground.  After  this 
is  beaten  down  as  hard  as  possible  a layer  of  brick  is 
put  down,  and  upon  the  brick  is  laid  a thick  coat- 
ing of  material  made  of  equal  parts  of  broken  brick, 
gravel,  lime,  and  coarse  sand.  This  is  wet,  and  beaten 
day  after  day  until  it  becomes  very  hard.  Lime  is 
then  wet,  ground  between  two  stones  until  it  becomes 
like  putty,  and  then  plastered  on  the  floor,  and  trow- 
eled, and  wet,  and  beaten  until  it  is  almost  as  hard 
and  smooth  as  marble.  This  is  the  way  the  floors  of 
nearly  all  the  houses  of  the  missionaries,  native  gen- 
tlemen, and  English  residents  are  made.  Some  very 
fine  residences  and  buildings  have  floors  of  porcelain, 
English  tile,  or  marble. 

If  the  house  has  two  stories,  the  upper  floor  is  made 
by  putting  heavy  timbers  or  iron  beams  from  wall  to 
wall,  about  three  or  four  feet  apart.  From  beam  to 
beam  light  timbers  or  irons  are  put  a foot  apart,  and 
on  these  a square  native  tile  is  laid  double  thickness, 
and  so  laid  as  to  break  joints.  Then  the  same  broken 
brick,  lime,  and  sand  are  used,  and  put  down  in  the 
same  manner.  The  roof  is  put  on  in  the  same  way. 


78 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


This  explains  why  we  can  go  upon  the  housetop  to  sit, 
and  even  to  sleep  at  times.  It  often  happens  that  white 
ants  make  their  way  up  through  these  brick  walls  and 
devour  the  wooden  beams  which  support  the  chamber 
or  the  roof.  After  a time  the  beams  are  eaten  to  a 
shell  (for  one  can  never  see  the  white  ants  at  work), 
and  then  comes  the  interesting  work  of  “ changing  a 
beam/’  The  natives  are  slow  and  awkward,  so  lime, 
brick,  dust,  and  litter  are  about  for  many  days.  Also 
much  ordering  and  loud  talking  are  heard,  for  every 
man  wants  to  boss  the  job.  It  often  happens  that  the 
walls  of  a house  are  made  of  brick,  while  the  roof  is 
made  of  thatch. 

The  most  beautiful  and  costly  buildings  belong  to 
the  Mohammedan  style  of  architecture.  These  abound 
in  northern  India,  and  are  either  mosques,  palaces,  or 
tombs.  The  palaces  of  Delhi  and  Agra  are  exquisite 
works  of  art;  the  tomb  of  Akbar  at  Secundra,  near 
Agra,  is  magnificent;  the  tomb  of  Edmud-ud-dowlah 
is  a perfect  gem;  but  the  Taj  Mahal,  built  by  the  Em- 
peror Shah  Jehan  in  honor  of  his  favorite  wife,  eclipses 
them  all.  The  gateway  is  a magnificent  structure  of  red 
sandstone,  but  serves  only  as  a fit  entrance  to  the  tomb 
itself.  From  the  gateway  to  the  Taj  are  marble  walks, 
with  a hundred  fountains  on  one  side,  and  tall  cypress 
and  many  other  kinds  of  beautiful  trees  on  the  other. 
The  tomb  stands  upon  a double  platform.  The  first 
is  twenty  feet  high  and  a thousand  feet  long,  and  is 
made  of  red  sandstone.  At  each  end  of  this  lower 
platform  is  a mosque  made  of  the  same  material.  The 
second  platform  is  built  in  the  center  of  the  first,  is 


Building  a house  for  the  poorer  class 


The  Taj  Mahal,  Agra 


Architecture 


79 


three  hundred  and  thirteen  feet  square  and  eighteen 
feet  high,  and  is  built  of  pure  white  marble.  On  the 
four  corners  of  this  platform  are  marble  minarets  one 
hundred  and  thirty-three  feet  high,  with  winding  stair- 
ways in  the  center,  from  bottom  to  top.  On  the  top  is 
a balcony,  and  the  outlook  from  this  is  perfectly  en- 
chanting. In  the  center  of  this  platform  rises  the  Taj, 
one  hundred  and  eighty-six  feet  square,  with  the  cor- 
ners, to  the  extent  of  thirty-three  feet,  cut  off,  forming 
an  irregular  octagon.  In  the  center  is  the  great  dome, 
fifty  feet  in  diameter  and  eighty  feet  high.  Exactly 
under  the  center  of  this  dome  are  the  marble  sar- 
cophagi of  the  emperor  and  his  wife.  The  light  is  ad- 
mitted through  trellis  work,  wrought  exquisitely  in 
slabs  of  white  marble,  producing  the  most  soft  and 
chastened  effect.  In  many  places  precious  stones  are 
inlaid  in  many  kinds  of  designs. 

The  echo  is  not  the  least  wonderful  thing  about 
this  structure.  If  one  stands  by  the  marble  coffins 
and  sings,  he  wall  be  surprised  at  the  melody  which 
comes  back  to  him  from  his  own  voice.  As  it  begins 
to  ascend,  it  sounds  like  the  very  lowest  notes  of  a 
great  pipe  organ,  but  as  it  ascends,  it  becomes  more 
distinct  and  musical.  The  higher  it  rises,  reverbera- 
ting from  side  to  side,  the  more  soft  and  sweet  it  be- 
comes, till  at  last,  as  it  dies  away  in  the  top  of  the  dome, 
one  might  fancy  the  angels  were  whispering  his  song 
back  to  him.  I have  thought  how  very  like  to  this  are 
the  sorrows  of  life — harsh  and  discordant  at  first,  but 
as  they  ascend  heavenward  they  are  robbed  of  their 
harshness,  and  at  last  they  come  back  to  us  glorified. 


F 


80 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


We  went  into  the  crypt  of  the  Pantheon  at  Paris  to 
see  the  resting-place  of  Victor  Hugo,  Voltaire,  and 
Rousseau,  and  the  guide  for  a consideration  wanted 
us  to  hear  the  echo  of  this  place,  but  it  bears  no  com- 
parison to  the  echo  of  the  Taj.  Some  one  has  said  that 
the  Taj  is  “ a poem  in  marble.” 

But  let  us  pass  from  poetry  to  prose,  from  this  fairy 
place  to  the  common  houses  of  the  people.  There  is 
only  one  Taj,  and  one  Imimbarrah,  and  a few  palaces, 
but  there  are  millions  of  houses  of  the  common  people, 
and  nineteen  out  of  every  twenty  of  the  people  live  in 
these  common  houses. 

Let  us  proceed  to  build  one.  We  first  count  our 
money  to  see  what  kind  of  house  it  is  to  be.  If  we 
have  five  dollars  we  plan  accordingly,  and  if  we  have 
twenty-five  dollars  we  can  do  much  better.  Suppose  it 
be  the  latter  sum.  We  call  men  whose  business  it  is  to 
build  mud  walls,  and  tell  them  how  large  a house  we 
want,  and  how  many  “ hands  ” there  will  be  in  the 
walls.  After  a good  deal  of  bickering,  they  agree  to 
take  the  customary  price  of  eight  cents  a hand  for  lay- 
ing up  the  walls.  That  is,  the  walls  are  to  be  seven 
and  one-half  feet  high,  and  for  each  foot  and  a half  in 
length  of  this  wall  they  are  to  have  eight  cents.  We 
furnish  them  with  two  or  three  large,  heavy  hoes,  a 
half-dozen  waterpots.  and  a long  string  of  twisted 
grass  or  jute,  and  they  are  ready  to  build  the  house. 
First  a string  is  put  around  where  the  outside  of  the 
walls  are  to  be.  This  is  secured  at  the  four  corners  by 
pins  driven  into  the  ground.  Inside  of  this  string  is 
another,  the  distance  from  the  outside  string  which  the 


Architecture 


81 


thickness  of  the  wall  is  to  be.  The  ground  between 
these  two  strings  is  dug  up,  wet,  and  worked  by  the 
feet  and  big  hoes,  until  it  becomes  a mortar.  It  then 
bakes  in  the  sun  until  it  is  hard.  A little  way  outside 
the  walls  a hole  is  dug,  from  which  mud  is  taken  to 
build  the  walls.  First  a layer  a foot  high  is  put  on  and 
allowed  to  stand  a week  or  so,  that  it  may  be  hard  and 
dry.  Then  another  one  is  put  on,  and  so  on,  layer 
after  layer,  until  the  wall  is  the  desired  height.  Bam- 
boo poles  are  put  on  for  rafters,  and  these  extend  about 
three  feet  over  the  walls.  Across  these  rafters  split 
bamboos  are  tied  about  two  inches  apart.  Upon  this 
the  rice-straw  is  laid  smoothly,  and  fastened  to  its  place 
by  another  strip  of  split  bamboo.  The  fastening  is 
done  by  putting  a long  bamboo  needle,  which  has  a 
string  attached  to  it,  down  through  the  straw,  around 
a rafter,  and  up  over  the  split  bamboo,  tying  the  string 
securely.  If  the  outside  walls  were  twenty  by  forty 
feet,  it  does  not  argue  that  the  roof  will  cover  all  that 
space.  Two  cross  walls  are  made,  leaving  an  open 
court  in  the  center.  There  is  but  one  outside  door, 
with  a few  small  holes  for  windows.  Around  the  out- 
side of  the  house  is  a mud  veranda,  covered  by  the 
projecting  roof.  This  veranda  is  the  reception-room 
for  men  who  may  call,  and  especially  for  strangers. 
There  are  a few  wooden  bars  put  in  the  windows,  and 
a small  door  to  keep  out  the  cold  air  in  winter  and  to 
keep  in  the  smoke.  The  cooking  is  frequently  done 
in  one  corner  of  the  room,  allowing  the  smoke  to  get 
out  the  best  way  it  can. 

In  northern  India,  as  also  in  southern  India,  we  see 


82 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


very  little  straw  thatching.  There  tile  is  used.  In  fact, 
most  of  the  native  shops  in  Calcutta  are  covered  with 
tile. 

Many  of  the  aborigines  live  in  huts  covered  with 
grass,  or  the  leaves  of  a scrubby  palm.  The  roof  and 
walls  are  one  and  the  same,  and  the  people  enter  these 
houses  by  crawling  into  them.  We  see,  therefore,  that 
there  are  all  kinds  of  buildings  in  India,  from  the  hut 
just  described  to  the  Taj  Mahal,  which  took  twenty 
thousand  men  twenty  years  to  build. 


CHAPTER  VIII 


Productions,  Natural  and  Otherwise 

BENGAL  is,  strictly  speaking,  a rice  country,  and 
northern  India  a wheat  country.  These  two 
grains  are  the  staple  of  the  dishes  of  the  peo- 
ple. A number  of  varieties  of  the  pulse  family 
grow  on  higher  and  more  sandy  land.  Some  of  the 
grains  of  these  are  as  large  as  our  common  pea,  others 
are  much  smaller.  These  several  varieties  have  dif- 
ferent names,  but  in  general  are  called  dal.  A good 
deal  of  millet  and  of  inferior  grains  of  that  kind  is 
raised  north.  Flax  is  raised,  and  oats  and  corn,  on  the 
lower  ranges  of  the  Himalayas. 

There  is  quite  a variety  of  roots.  The  sweet  potato 
does  well  on  the  plains,  and  the  Irish  potato  in  the 
mountains  and  on  the  west  coast.  There  is  a large 
kind  of  radish  which  may  be  eaten  either  raw  or 
cooked,  and  which  is  produced  in  large  quantities. 
Artichokes,  yams,  and  the  roots  of  the  caladium  are 
also  articles  of  food. 

Many  kinds  of  vegetables  grow  well.  There  is  a 
large  variety  belonging  to  the  gourd  family,  as  squash, 
pumpkins,  cucumbers,  watermelons,  and  muskmelons, 
citron,  and  other  varieties  not  produced  in  America. 
Almost  all  kinds  of  European  vegetables  may  be  raised 
in  Bengal  and  farther  north  in  the  winter  season.  The 
eggplant  is  extensively  cultivated  in  many  parts  of 

83 


84 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


Bengal  in  the  winter.  There  are  many  other  kinds 
of  native  vegetables  with  which  we  in  America  are 
wholly  unacquainted.  All  European  vegetables  are  very 
tasteless  in  India  compared  with  the  same  thing  in 
America. 

A great  variety  of  fruit  is  raised,  but  as  a rule  a 
great  variety  is  not  grown  in  any  one  place.  Bananas 
are  the  most  common.  Pineapples,  custard  apples, 
mangoes,  jack-fruit,  bael,  papayas,  and  guavas  are, 
aside  from  bananas,  the  principal  fruits  of  Bengal. 
Assam  produces  oranges  and  lemons;  and  a large 
sweet  orange  is  grown,  as  are  also  sweet  limes,  farther 
north.  The  Afghans  bring  down  fresh  grapes,  apples, 
raisins,  and  nuts.  Cocoanuts  grow  more  or  less  in 
many  parts  of  the  country. 

Sugar-cane  plantations  abound.  The  natives  manu- 
facture a coarse  brown  sugar,  from  which  they  make 
their  native  sweets,  and  from  which  also  great  quanti- 
ties of  refined  sugar  are  produced  in  Calcutta  and  else- 
where. 

Jute  and  opium  are  among  the  exports,  also  oils  of 
different  kinds,  as  cocoanut,  mustard,  and  castor  oil. 
Sheep,  goats,  cows,  and  buffaloes  are  among  the  most 
useful  and  common  of  animals.  From  the  milk  of  the 
cow  and  the  buffalo  the  natives  make  a butter  which, 
when  melted  and  clarified,  is  called  ghee.  This  is 
most  important,  as  it  enters  into  almost  every  well- 
cooked  meal,  whether  of  the  European  or  the  native. 

In  Calcutta  and  other  large  cities  which  have  rail- 
road communication  with  other  parts,  almost  every 
kind  of  these  fruits  and  vegetables  may  be  found,  but 


Productions 


85 


in  the  more  secluded  and  remote  places  the  question 
of  getting  a variety  to  eat  at  times  becomes  a trouble- 
some one.  At  Balasore  we  could  get  mangoes  in  May 
and  June,  custard  apples  in  July  and  August,  jack-fruit 
at  the  same  time,  and  also  pineapples,  while  bananas 
grew  the  year  round;  but  the  supply  was  liable  to  be 
short,  and  if  so  we  must  go  without. 

“ What  do  the  people  eat  ? ” This  is  a most  common 
question.  We  could  answer  it  in  a general  way  by  say- 
ing they  eat  about  what  the  country  produces.  There 
are  some  things  a good  Hindu  will  not  eat.  He  never 
takes  life  of  any  kind,  and  therefore  will  not  eat  flesh 
of  any  kind,  except,  in  some  places,  fish.  Then  a third 
of  the  people  do  not  get  enough  of  the  plainest  kind  of 
food  to  satisfy  their  hunger.  These  must  eat  the  cheap- 
est things  they  can  get.  In  the  mango  season  this 
fruit  is  eagerly  eaten  from  the  time  it  is  as  large  as  a 
plum,  up  to  the  time  it  ripens.  When  ripe  it  is  as  large 
as  a large  apple.  It  is  not  because  the  country  does 
not  produce  enough  for  the  people  to  eat  that  many  do 
not  have  enough,  but  because  they  are  too  poor  to  buy 
it.  There  are  millions  of  bushels  of  rice  and  wheat 
shipped  from  India  every  year. 

Leaving  out  the  very  poor,  who  do  not  have  regular 
daily  meals  of  cooked  food,  let  us  see  what  those  eat 
who  do.  In  Bengal  boiled  rice  and  boiled  split  peas, 
called  dal,  is  the  principal  thing.  The  rice  is  boiled,  and 
the  water  turned  off  into  a separate  dish.  The  rice  is 
then  put  back  again  on  the  fire  for  a few  minutes,  when 
it  comes  off  dry  and  fluffy.  In  the  dal  some  mustard 
oil  or  ghee,  and  salt,  pepper,  and  other  spices  are  put. 


86 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


The  natives  take  their  rice  and  put  it  either  upon  a brass 
plate  or  a banana  leaf,  make  a hole  in  the  center,  into 
which  they  turn  the  dal,  and  then  proceed  to  mix  the 
whole  together  with  their  fingers.  Their  table  is  a 
grass  mat  spread  upon  the  floor  over  which  may  or  may 
not  be  spread  a cloth,  and  their  chairs  are  their  legs 
crossed  under  them.  The  male  members  of  the  family 
eat  first,  while  the  other  portion  waits  upon  them.  The 
women  have  their  meals  afterward,  if  there  is  enough 
for  all.  In  place  of  the  dal  they  frequently  make  a 
curry  with  either  vegetables  or  fish  for  a foundation, 
having  otherwise  about  the  same  seasoning  as  the  dal. 
Onions  and  huldee  (a  pungent  root)  enter  into  almost 
all  of  their  well-cooked  dishes.  They  make  a pudding 
from  rice,  milk,  and  sugar,  seasoning  it  with  camphor. 
This  is  eaten  only  on  rare  occasions.  The  wealthy  are 
very  fond  of  sweets,  and  eat  a great  many.  They  have 
a very  great  variety  of  these.  If  a person  calls  on  a 
native  gentleman,  and  he  wishes  to  be  very  cordial,  he 
sends  out  a servant  to  the  bazaar  to  bring  in  a tray  of 
mixed  native  sweets.  Many  Europeans  do  not  care 
for  these,  but  I was  very  fond  of  them.  The  water 
turned  from  the  rice  of  the  last  night’s  dinner  consti- 
tutes the  breakfast  of  most  of  the  laboring  people  in  the 
rice  districts.  In  upper  India  wheat  is  ground  whole 
and  baked  into  cakes;  this  takes  the  place  of  rice  in 
Bengal. 

“What  do  you  missionaries  eat?"  Rice,  dal,  and 
curry,  are  much  more  largely  eaten  in  India  than  in 
America ; but,  aside  from  these,  if  one  lives  in  a city  like 
Calcutta  he  can  get  many  of  the  same  things  he  can  get 


A pilgrim  preparing  his  cakes 
by  the  roadside 


Calcutta  coolies 


Productions 


87 


at  home;  i.  e.,  if  he  has  the  money,  for  what  is  not  pro- 
duced in  the  country  is  imported  from  England,  Aus- 
tralia, and  the  United  States.  But  back  in  remote 
stations  it  is  a very  different  thing.  As  I said,  you 
are  for  fruits  largely  dependent  upon  local  supply, 
which  may  fail.  No  beef  can  be  had,  and  but  little 
mutton  and  fish.  Chicken,  poor  and  tough,  is  the  only 
thing  one  can  be  sure  of  in  the  meat  line,  and  even  then 
he  must  look  sharp  or  the  supply  may  run  out.  Gen- 
erally one  can  get  what  eggs  he  needs,  and  milk,  if  he 
keeps  his  own  cows.  We  have  taught  native  Christians 
how  to  milk  to  suit  us,  and  could  buy  milk  of  them. 
We  never  think  of  using  the  milk  from  an  ordinary 
Hindu  village.  They  have  a way  of  cleaning  dishes 
and  flavoring  milk  which  we  have  not  been  educated 
into  liking.  One  can  get  about  what  bread  he  needs, 
but  it  is  not  very  good;  also  in  the  winter,  vegetables 
from  the  garden;  and  in  the  rains,  native  vegetables. 
As  a rule,  the  eating  habits  of  the  natives  are  simple, 
and  so  are  those  of  the  missionaries.  I would  hardly 
recommend  any  person,  however,  to  go  to  India  for 
the  sake  of  what  he  might  get  to  eat. 

Some  years  ago  the  government  started  near  Ali- 
gurh,  in  north  India,  an  experimental  dairy  farm,  and 
called  Edward  Keventer,  an  expert  from  Sweden,  to 
manage  it.  He  demonstrated  that  good  butter  could 
be  produced  in  the  country.  After  this  fact  was  es- 
tablished, Mr.  Keventer  bought  the  plant  from  the 
government  and  has  greatly  enlarged  the  business,  so 
that  now  good  butter  may  be  sent  by  rail  or  parcel- 
post  to  any  home  in  India. 


CHAPTER  IX 


Climate 

YOU  may  have  in  India  almost  any  kind  of  cli- 
mate your  means  and  taste  may  suggest.  In 
the  north  you  may  go  up  the  Himalaya  Moun- 
tains until  you  come  to  the  fields  of  perpetual 
ice  and  snow.  These  are  not  the  ordinary  snow-capped 
mountains,  but  those  grand  ranges  whose  cold  summits 
seem  to  pierce  the  very  sky.  It  is  not  necessary  to  go 
to  the  top  of  these  ranges  to  find  eternal  winter. 
The  top,  in  fact,  was  never  reached  by  man  or  beast. 
Even  the  birds  in  their  loftiest  flights  never  scaled  the 
heights  of  such  mountains  as  Everest,  twenty-nine 
thousand  feet  high;  or  Kanchanjanga,  twenty-eight 
thousand  feet  high.  Ten  thousand  feet  below  the  top 
of  these  you  could  build  your  snow  house  and  live  as 
the  Eskimo  does,  if  some  great  glacier  did  not  carry 
your  house  away.  If  you  did  not  like  this,  you  could 
go  to  the  south  of  India,  where  you  would  have  sum- 
mer the  year  around.  So  warm  is  it  here  that  the  chilly 
wind  is  scarcely  ever  felt,  and  the  blighting  frost  is 
never  known. 

On  the  plains  between  the  mountains  of  the  north 
and  the  perpetual  summer  of  the  south,  there  is  almost 
every  degree  of  climate.  In  the  Punjab  summer  is 
hot,  but  shorter,  and  the  winter  quite  cold.  In  the 
northwestern  provinces,  the  heat  of  summer  is  more 
88 


Climate 


89 


intense  than  it  is  even  farther  south,  on  account  of  the 
hot  winds  blowing  off  the  sands  of  central  India  and 
Rajputana.  It  is  not  an  uncommon  thing  for  the  ther- 
mometer to  register  120°  on  the  veranda.  The  rains 
here  close  earlier,  and  refreshing,  cool  nights  are  ex- 
perienced by  October  1.  Ice,  one-fourth  of  an  inch  <■ 
thick,  is  formed  on  some  of  the  coldest  nights,  and  this 
cooler  season  lasts  longer  than  in  Bengal.  On  the 
plains  of  Bengal  and  Orissa  we  never  have  frosts  or 
snow.  The  hot  season  here  begins  with  the  change  of 
the  wind  from  the  northwest  to  the  southeast.  When 
the  latter  wind  is  really  established  the  hot  season  is 
upon  us.  This  is  usually  about  March  1.  The  longer 
the  wind  blows  the  hotter  the  season  becomes,  so  that 
April,  May,  and  the  most  of  June  give  us  our  hottest 
months.  The  thermometer  will  range  from  90°  to 
ioo°  in  the  house  most  of  the  time  during  these 
months.  We  are  liable  to  have  a few  thunder-storms 
in  May,  which  are  most  refreshing  after  the  hot,  dry 
winds  of  March  and  April. 

About  June  15  or  20  we  look  for  a break  in  the  sea- 
son. Dark  clouds  in  the  northwest,  loud  claps  of 
thunder,  and  some  hard  winds  tell  us  the  rains  are 
approaching.  These  are  more  or  less  constant  until 
November.  At  the  beginning  they  are  refreshing. 
The  air  is  cooler  and  the  grass  springs  up  green  and 
fresh.  In  July  the  rains  are  more  constant,  and  the 
sun  comes  out  between  showers,  often  very  hot  and 
sultry,  and  one  begins  to  feel  the  depressing  influence 
of  the  humid,  hot  atmosphere.  In  August  the  fields 
are  full  of  water,  and  rivers  have  overflowed  their 


90 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


banks;  tanks  and  ditches  are  full,  and  the  ground  is 
so  filled  that  it  sometimes  seems  as  if  the  very  earth 
were  turning  into  a bed  of  mortar;  the  atmosphere  is 
full  of  moisture,  and  still  it  rains.  As  September 
comes  there  is  no  cessation,  but  rather  an  increase. 
The  rank  vines  growing  up  the  trees  and  beside  gar- 
den walls,  and  sometimes  running  up  the  sides  of 
your  houses  and  over  the  gate-posts,  droop  their 
leaves  to  shake  themselves  from  their  shower-bath; 
trees  are  in  mourning;  and  the  very  grass  has  lost 
heart,  and  no  longer  tries  to  stand  erect.  Shoes,  har- 
ness, trunks,  books,  and  everything  that  can  gather 
moisture  is  covered  with  mold.  And  still  it  rains. 
White  ants  with  wings  fly  at  night  into  your  house, 
and  gnats  of  all  kinds  so  fill  the  air  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  lamp  that  at  times  you  can  hardly  keep  them  out 
of  your  mouth  or  eyes  as  you  try  to  read  aloud.  These 
large  white  ants  with  wings  sometimes  want  to  share 
the  gravy  and  roast  for  dinner,  and  when  you  find  a 
few  of  them  in  the  dish  you  lean  back  and  wish  audi- 
bly that  the  rains  were  over. 

October  comes  and  showers  are  less  frequent.  You 
someway  feel  a difference  in  the  atmosphere.  It  is 
about  as  hot,  and  there  is  nearly  as  much  mud,  but 
still  you  feel  that  autumn  is  coming.  Some  morning 
you  wake  up  early  and  find  a northwest  wind  blowing 
in  your  room,  and  you  exclaim  with  joy,  “ The  winter 
is  coming ! ” In  an  hour  it  is  back  again  in  the  south, 
but  you  know  the  cold  season  is  approaching.  There  is 
sometimes  a war  in  the  elements,  and  this  is  also  the 
season  for  cyclones.  At  last,  however,  the  wind  is  in 


Climate 


91 


the  northwest  to  stay,  and  as  it  blows  down  off  the 
snow  and  ice  fields  of  the  Himalayas  you  begin  to  feel 
new  life  coming  back  to  you.  The  sky  is  so  blue,  and 
the  atmosphere  so  clear,  and  the  rice  fields  so  golden, 
and  the  cattle  so  sleek  and  fat,  that  all  feel  like  re- 
joicing over  the  changed  condition  and  the  prospect 
before  us.  But  alas!  this  is  also  the  season  of  fevers, 
and  so  severe  and  persistent  are  these,  that  of  all  the 
deaths  in  India,  though  we  hear  much  of  cholera  and 
smallpox,  ninety  per  cent  are  from  this  cause.  The 
missionary  now  begins  to  plan  for  his  country  tours, 
and  the  farmer  to  gather  in  his  harvest.  Of  these  I 
will  speak  in  another  chapter. 


CHAPTER  X 

Scenery  and  Sights 

THE  great  diversity  in  climate  suggests  a di- 
versity in  scenery,  and  so  there  is.  Suppose 
we  begin  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hugh  River, 
which  is  one  of  the  principal  mouths  of  the 
Ganges,  and  go  up  this  river  as  far  as  Calcutta,  just 
as  we  did  when  we  went  to  India,  then  take  a trip  into 
the  country  by  road,  and  we  get  an  idea  of  Bengal. 
We  are  on  shipboard,  and  are  seeing  India  for  the 
first  time.  Our  good  ship  drops  her  anchor  near  the 
pilot  brig,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  the  pilot  steps 
on  board  to  take  charge  of  her  up  the  dangerous  and 
treacherous  channel.  We  are  so  full  of  expectancy 
that  we  do  not  sleep  much,  and  early  in  the  morning 
are  on  deck.  Soon  all  is  commotion.  The  tide  will 
soon  be  rising,  and  we  must  run  up  with  the  full  tide. 
The  order  is  given  to  raise  the  anchor,  and  the  little 
steam  winches  begin  such  a rattling  that  little  else  can 
be  heard. 

But  the  bay!  Are  our  spirits  so  joyful  because  our 
long  voyage  of  fourteen  thousand  miles  is  so  nearly 
over,  or  is  the  water  the  most  beautiful  we  have  ever 
looked  at?  The  bay  is  as  placid  as  a sea  of  glass,  and 
the  great  red  sun  comes  up  and  turns  this  sea  of  glass 
into  a sea  of  melted  gold.  To  the  right  and  left,  at  a 
great  distance,  the  dark-blue  coast  line  can  be  seen. 
92 


93 


Scenery  and  Sights 


We  start  with  the  rising  tide.  The  shores  on  either 
side  begin  to  converge,  and  soon  we  are  in  the  channel 
of  the  river,  and  flying  up  at  the  rate  of  eighteen  miles 
an  hour.  Objects  on  both  banks  can  be  distinctly  seen. 
I said  to  my  wife,  who  had  been  in  India  before, 
“ Wife,  what  a lot  of  hay  the  people  in  this  country 
must  use.”  She  said,  “What  makes  you  think  so?” 
I replied,  “ Why,  look  at  the  haystacks.”  “ Those  are 
not  haystacks;  those  are  houses!”  Here  and  there, 
all  along  either  side  of  the  river,  might  be  seen  clusters 
of  these  houses,  some  of  them  simply  farmers’  houses, 
and  some  of  them  villages  in  which  were  shops  and 
stores.  The  thatch  which  made  the  roofs  of  these 
houses  was  the  “ haystacks  ” which  I saw.  On  the 
banks  also  could  be  seen  palm  trees,  sometimes  a sin- 
gle lonely  tree,  and  sometimes  clusters  of  palms — palms 
of  various  kinds,  such  as  date,  palmyra,  and  cocoanut. 
Here  was  a grove  of  mango  trees,  and  there  an  orchard 
of  bananas,  and  yonder  clusters  of  beautiful,  feathery 
bamboos. 

And  such  a scene  on  the  river!  Great  ocean  steam- 
ers from  almost  every  country  in  the  world;  large 
ships  being  towed  up  and  down  by  giant  tugboats,  and 
native  crafts  of  all  kinds.  Sometimes  we  would  pass 
two  native  boats  fastened  together,  loaded  with  straw, 
and  so  loaded  that  nothing  of  the  boat  was  visible  ex- 
cept the  scaffolding  at  the  hinder  end,  upon  which  the 
man  stood  who  held  the  long  oar  used  for  a rudder; 
and  sometimes  boats  loaded  almost  to  the  water’s  edge 
with  native  pottery,  brick,  fruits,  etc.  Sometimes  they 
were  propelled  by  all  but  naked  oarsmen  walking  back 


94 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


and  forth  upon  the  prow,  as  they  pulled  the  huge  oars, 
and  sometimes  by  sails — square,  oblong,  or  three- 
cornered  ; black,  white,  or  yellow ; whole,  patched,  or 
in  tatters.  As  we  approached  Calcutta,  the  river  was 
fairly  alive  with  steamboats  of  smaller  burden.  Some 
of  these  were  bound  up  the  river  for  Assam,  and  others 
up  the  various  rivers  forming  the  delta  of  the  Ganges, 
while  still  others  were  coasting  steamers. 

At  length  our  steamer  fastens  to  the  buoy,  and  we  are 
immediately  surrounded  by  a score  or  more  of  small 
native  boats — dingeys  and  green  boats.  The  boatmen 
swarm  upon  the  deck,  notwithstanding  kicks  and  cuffs 
from  the  officers  of  the  steamer,  and  in  an  unknown 
tongue  begin  to  talk  to  us.  They  want  to  take  us 
ashore,  and  in  due  time  we  are  landed  on  the  bank. 
Literally  hundreds  of  coolies  are  waiting  here,  and 
each  wants  a hand  in  taking  our  things.  We  become 
almost  distracted  in  the  babel  of  noise.  Here  too 
stands  the  tikka  garrie  (carriage  for  hire),  and  each 
driver  clamors  for  our  luggage,  and  unless  we  look 
sharp  will  get  a portion  of  it. 

And  now  we  are  in  Calcutta,  the  capital  of  British 
India,  and  in  many  respects  one  of  the  most  wonderful 
of  cities.  It,  with  Howrah  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
river,  contains  a population  of  over  a million  people. 
This  city  is  not  easily  described,  but  must  be  seen  to 
be  appreciated.  There  are  streetcars  and  ox-carts, 
beautiful  carriages  containing  ladies  and  gentlemen  of 
the  highest  social  position,  and  all  but  naked  coolies, 
side  by  side.  Here  is  a palace,  in  which  are  all  the 
luxuries  and  beauties  which  wealth  and  a refined  taste 


Procuresses  near  Kali’s  temple,  Calcutta 


Devotees  bathing  in  the  Ganges,  Calcutta 


95 


Scenery  and  Sights 


suggest,  and  within  fifty  feet  the  watchman  at  the  gate, 
cooking,  eating,  and  sleeping  in  a room  eight  feet 
square.  Here  are  most  magnificent  European  stores, 
and  but  a few  feet  away  a native  sitting  in  a little  room 
dealing  out  his  wares.  Here  are  the  Eden  gardens, 
with  electric  lights,  fountains,  and  exquisite  music  fur- 
nished by  the  viceroy’s  band,  and  not  far  distant  the 
vender  of  native  sweets  in  his  shanty,  sitting  over  his 
pot  of  boiling  oil  making  his  candies.  Here  is  a French 
theater  and  almost  across  the  street  is  Chandnee  ba- 
zaar, with  its  hundreds  of  tile-roofed  one-story  shops, 
and  labyrinth  of  streets  not  more  than  four  feet  wide. 
From  narrow  Bentick  Street,  with  its  numerous  Chi- 
nese shops  and  the  rattle  and  din  of  native  life,  you 
come  out  on  the  great  beautiful  Maidan.  This  latter  is 
an  open  park,  consisting  of  many  hundreds  of  acres  of 
land,  lying  between  Chowringee  Street  and  the  river. 
It  was  once  covered  with  native  villages,  but  these  were 
bought  by  the  government  and  torn  down. 

The  Maidan  is  worth  going  a long  way  to  see.  It  is 
a dead  level  piece  of  ground,  with  here  and  there  a 
cluster  of  trees  and  many  beautiful  roads,  but  is  mainly 
a grass-plot.  On  almost  any  evening  of  the  year,  ex- 
cept when  it  is  raining,  you  may  see  every  kind  of  a 
turnout  imaginable.  Some  cartmen  are  returning  from 
their  work,  with  their  little  bullocks  and  carts.  Then 
perhaps  a Chinese  comes  arrayed  in  red  and  green  silk, 
his  long  queue  hanging  down  behind,  sitting  in  his 
beautiful  barouche,  while  two  elegant  horses,  with 
gold  or  silver-mounted  harness,  are  driven  by  his 
coachman.  Here  comes  an  Englishman  in  his  high- 

G 


96 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


wheeled  dog-cart,  driving  at  a breakneck  pace,  and 
there  another  on  a bicycle.  Here  come  four  Bengali 
gentlemen,  with  spotless  white  clothes  on,  heads  bare, 
chains  of  heavy  gold,  studded  with  precious  stones, 
holding  their  watches  in  a conspicuous  place — carriage, 
horses,  and  harness  to  rival  the  viceroy’s,  footmen  be- 
hind and  coachman  in  front.  There  goes  a poor  Eura- 
sian family,  six  of  them,  in  a tikka  garrie.  Look  at 
the  horses;  they  are  small  and  poor,  and  the  harness 
is  tied  together  with  strings.  The  driver  from  his 
lofty  seat  is  leaning  forward,  making  frantic  motions 
with  his  whip,  as  if  the  whip  would  compensate  the 
horses  for  the  lack  of  grain.  But  the  scamp  does  not 
intend  to  drive  fast;  he  only  wants  you  to  think  he  is 
driving  the  horses  at  their  utmost  speed.  Look  over 
there,  and  you  see  two  Parsees,  erect  and  proud,  having 
on  their  peculiar  stovepipe  hats,  and  just  behind  them 
are  two  Burmese,  with  red  silk  handkerchiefs  tied  tight 
across  their  foreheads.  Here  are  some  zenana  mis- 
sionaries in  their  phaeton,  and  yonder  two  padries 
(preachers),  while  just  beyond  are  two  coolies,  with 
large  baskets  on  their  heads,  hoping  a stray  job  may 
turn  up.  Scattered  all  through  this  crowd  of  people 
are  the  watermen,  with  their  leather  bags  of  water  on 
their  hips,  sprinkling  the  streets  and  trying  to  keep  the 
dust  down. 

We  will  leave  Calcutta  and  take  a trip  of  two  hun- 
dred miles  out  into  the  interior.  We  go  on  the  broad 
turnpike  road  before  described.  We  look  off  to  the 
right  and  left  and  see  a level  plain,  with  here  and  there 
what  appears  to  be  a grove.  If  we  look  at  this  plain  a 


Scenery  and  Sights 


97 


little  more  closely,  we  find  it  to  be  cut  up  into  an  in- 
finite number  of  rice  fields,  separated  from  each  other 
by  little  dams  a foot  high  and  a foot  wide.  The  fields 
are  in  size  from  two  to  twenty  rods  square.  If  we  pass 
along  this  road  in  the  month  of  May,  after  a few  show- 
ers have  softened  the  surface,  we  shall  see  the  plowmen 
at  work  with  their  primitive  plows,  following  each 
other  around  the  little  field.  Sometimes  these  plowmen 
are  very  happy,  and  their  songs,  as  one  after  another 
takes  up  the  refrain,  and  their  voices  rise  higher  and 
higher,  are  very  pleasing.  If  you  go  along  this  road 
a little  later,  you  find  the  farmers  sowing  their  rice; 
and,  later  still,  when  the  rains  are  well  on  and  the  rice 
well  up,  you  will  see  them  either  transplanting  by  hand 
or  plowing  up  by  the  roots  that  which  is  growing. 
The  latter  drops  to  the  bottom  of  the  water,  takes  new 
root,  and  the  stock  of  rice  is  more  vigorous  than  it 
would  otherwise  be.  Still  later  you  see  the  field  dotted 
with  men  pulling  up  the  tares.  These  men  have  on  a 
covering  for  their  backs  and  heads  made  of  the  leaf 
of  the  palm,  which  forms  a protection  from  the  rains. 
Stooping  as  they  must  to  weed  up  the  grass,  nothing 
but  their  legs  and  this  covering  is  visible.  This 
makes  them  look  like  huge  pelicans  scattered  over  the 
field.  Pass  along  this  road  in  December,  and  you  see 
men  and  women  with  sickles  cutting  the  ripened  grain, 
and  bullocks  bearing  it  away  on  their  backs  to  the 
house.  If  you  go  to  what  appeared  from  the  road  to  be 
a grove,  you  will  find  it  to  be  a village — simply  a cluster 
of  farmhouses.  Let  us  now  enter  the  village  along  with 
the  farmer,  who  at  evening  is  bringing  in  his  sheaves. 


98 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


We  find  that  he  has  around  his  house  and  yard  a 
hedge  made  of  the  most  thorny  material  he  can  find. 
Through  the  opening,  which  is  used  as  a gateway,  his 
bullocks  go.  and  their  loads  are  dumped  promiscuously 
around  the  dooryard.  In  this  yard  the  rice  is  stacked, 
and  here  it  is  also  trodden  out  by  the  bullocks  after  the 
harvest  is  all  in.  On  the  verandas  of  the  houses  a ma- 
chine is  constructed  called  a dhinkie,  by  treading  on 
which  the  women  hull  the  rice.  It  works  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  a mortar  and  a pestle.  When  they  press  down 
with  their  feet  the  pestle  is  raised,  and  when  they  slip 
off  their  feet  it  drops  into  the  mortar.  Long  before 
daylight,  through  the  winter  season,  the  sound  of  these 
dhinkies  may  be  heard  in  every  village. 

Now  that  we  are  in  the  village,  let  us  look  around. 
We  find  there  is  one  street,  perhaps  ten  feet  wide, 
running  through  it.  For  centuries  people  and  bul- 
locks have  trodden  this  same  narrow  street,  and  the 
rains  have  washed  it,  and  the  hot  winds  of  summer 
have  sent  its  fine  dust  in  clouds  into  the  air.  No 
wonder,  therefore,  that  sometimes  it  is  three  or  four 
feet  lower  than  the  houses  and  yards  on  either  side. 
In  the  rains  this  street  is  often  knee-deep  with  water 
and  mud,  with  no  chance  to  get  away  except  by  evapo- 
ration. In  the  yard  of  this  farmer  there  may  be  a 
mango  tree,  and  in  the  adjoining  yard  a tamarind,  and 
in  the  third  a cluster  of  bamboos.  It  is  these  trees 
which  deceived  you  at  a distance,  and  made  you  think 
you  were  seeing  a grove.  If  you  come  to  the  village 
in  the  morning  you  may  see  a woman  coming  out  of 
the  house,  bearing  in  her  hands  two  earthen  water- 


A typical  Bengal  tank 


Mission  boat 


Scenery  and  Sights  99 


jars.  She  has  a dirty  white  cotton  cloth  around  her 
body  and  over  her  head.  At  the  sight  of  you  she  turns 
her  head  and  pulls  her  cloth  over  her  face,  so  as  almost 
to  hide  it,  and  hesitates  and  wonders  whether  she 
would  better  go  back  into  the  house  or  proceed  on  her 
errand.  You  walk  on  with  no  intention  of  molesting 
her,  and  she  proceeds  to  the  village  tank.  Do  not  sup- 
pose this  tank  is  some  nice  piece  of  stonework,  and 
that  a cool  stream  of  living  water  is  constantly  pouring 
into  it.  It  is  simply  a great  hole  dug  in  the  ground 
by  some  rich  gentleman,  perhaps  five  hundred  years 
ago.  It  is  replenished  from  year  to  year  by  the  heavy 
rains  of  summer.  Every  village  must  have  its  tank, 
for  there  are  few  wells  in  this  part  of  India,  and  water, 
and  much  of  it,  is  a necessity. 

Let  us  follow  the  woman,  but  at  such  a distance  as 
not  to  attract  her  attention.  She  has  with  her  two, 
and  possibly  three,  earthen  water-jars.  They  are 
shaped  at  the  bottom  like  the  larger  end  of  an  egg,  and 
at  the  top  have  a mouth  three  inches  in  diameter.  She 
goes  to  the  water’s  edge,  puts  down  her  jars,  and  sits 
down  herself  on  her  heels.  She  then  takes  a green 
stick  which  she  has  brought  with  her,  six  inches  long 
and  half  an  inch  thick,  with  one  end  of  which  she  be- 
gins to  scrub  her  teeth.  The  Hindus  are  said  to  be 
very  clean,  and  cleaning  the  mouth  is  among  the  neces- 
sary things  before  eating.  But  she  has  reason  to  clean 
her  teeth,  for  she  has  been  chewing  a dirty  substance 
called  pan,  a mixture  of  tobacco,  betel-nut,  spices,  and 
lime,  and  her  teeth  are  black  and  her  lips  red.  She 
therefore  scours  her  teeth  thoroughly,  and  then  pro- 


wo 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


ceeds  to  rinse  her  mouth.  When  her  teeth  are  cleaned, 
she  goes  out  a little  way  into  the  tank  and  takes  her 
bath,  for  this  is  also  a prerequisite  to  eating.  This 
finished,  she  gets  her  water- jars,  wades  out  a little 
farther  into  the  tank,  brushes  away  the  dirt  with  her 
hand  or  the  bottom  of  her  jars,  fills  them  with  water, 
and  takes  them  to  the  house  to  cook  her  breakfast. 
The  men  come  in  later  from  the  field,  their  mouths  as 
filthy  and  their  bodies  more  dusty,  and  go  through  the 
same  process  of  purification.  They  are  then  prepared 
to  eat  the  breakfast  which  the  tidy  housewife  has  pre- 
pared for  them.  In  some  villages  there  are  separate 
tanks  in  which  to  bathe,  but  I should  say  this  was  the 
exception  rather  than  the  rule. 

All  the  plains  are  not  rice  fields.  Some  of  them  are 
barren  and  sandy,  and  produce  little  more  than  thorny 
bushes,  stunted  grass,  and  huge  hills  of  white  ants, 
with  here  and  there  a solitary  tree.  Other  places  are 
quite  heavily  wooded,  sometimes  with  a thick  under- 
growth of  vines  and  brambles,  and  sometimes  not. 
Along  the  coast  are  other  kinds  of  jungles.  In  these 
grow  tall  grass  and  reeds,  and  a kind  of  stunted  palm, 
and  the  whole  is  covered  at  times  with  water  from  the 
river  or  tides  from  the  sea.  Here  is  a hiding-place  for 
tigers,  leopards,  and  hyenas. 

Large  rivers  are  abundant,  and  we  cross  them  either 
in  a ferry  or  a rowboat  in  going  down  the  great  turn- 
pike road,  over  which  we  are  traveling. 

Within  three  hundred  and  sixty-five  miles  of  Cal- 
cutta is  Darjiling.  Between  the  plains  of  Bengal  and 
the  mountains  of  Darjiling  the  contrast  is  as  great  as 


Scenery  and  Sights 


10/ 


can  be  imagined,  as  to  both  climate  and  scenery. 
These  two  places  may  illustrate  the  difference  between 
the  plains  and  the  mountains  in  other  parts  of  India. 
Silaguri  is  three  hundred  and  fifteen  miles  north  of 
Calcutta,  and  is  the  railroad  station  at  the  foot  of  the 
Himalaya  Mountains.  Here  we  take  a very  narrow- 
gage  road,  and  climb  the  hills  for  a distance  of  forty- 
eight  miles,  the  first  forty-four  of  which  have  a grade 
of  two  hundred  feet  to  the  mile.  For  a few  miles  out 
of  Silaguri  the  ascent  is  gradual,  and  the  rank  vegeta- 
tion reminds  you  that  you  are  in  a hot,  damp  atmos- 
phere, and  on  very  rich  soil.  The  trees  have  leaves 
almost  as  large  as  your  hat,  and  rank  vines  climb  up 
around  them  to  their  very  top,  and  then  reach  out  their 
long  arms  from  every  branch  as  if  seeking  something 
else  to  cling  to.  Sometimes  they  find  it,  and  the  trees 
are  woven  together  by  these  huge  vines.  As  we  as- 
cend we  see  broad  valleys  filled  with  wild  bananas, 
bamboos,  and  palm  trees  of  a most  luxuriant  growth. 
Farther  up  we  find  mountain  oaks  and  fern  trees; 
and  still  higher,  oats,  corn,  and  potatoes  are  cultivated. 
On  the  broad  slopes  of  many  of  these  mountains  there 
are  tea  plantations.  We  are  greeted  with  the  face  of 
the  old  familiar  yellow  dock,  and  for  once  it  seems  like 
a friend.  Also  patches  of  white  clover  smile  upon  us 
here  and  there.  This  also  is  the  very  paradise  for 
roses.  Our  flannels,  which  we  put  on  at  the  foot  of 
the  hills,  no  longer  feel  too  thick;  but  on  the  other 
hand,  we  begin  to  put  on  additional  wraps,  and  even 
then  can  hardly  keep  warm. 

The  railroad  is  a masterpiece  of  engineering.  In 


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India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


some  places  it  goes  zigzag  up  the  mountainside  by 
running  forward  and  then  switching  back  on  a higher 
grade;  in  other  places  it  forms  a loop  at  the  point  of 
some  hill,  and  comes  back  over  its  own  track  twenty 
feet  above,  and  then  goes  on  up  the  same  hillside  it 
came  over  but  a few  moments  before.  Sometimes  as  it 
goes  round  a point  you  grasp  the  seat  of  the  little  open 
car,  for  it  seems  as  if  you  were  going  to  be  pitched 
to  the  bottom  of  the  deep  gorge  at  your  side.  At 
Ghoompahar  you  pass  the  highest  range  on  the  rail- 
road, and  for  the  next  four  miles  the  descent  is  gradual 
to  Darjiling.  This  is  the  city  where  the  government 
of  Bengal  resides  in  summer,  and  where  the  people 
sometimes  come  when  worn  out  by  the  heat  of  the 
plains.  It  is  seventy-five  hundred  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  The  scenery  here  is  grand  beyond  descrip- 
tion. There  are  broad  valleys  whose  hillsides  are 
dotted  here  and  there  with  a village,  or  with  primeval 
forests,  tea  plantations,  or  fields  of  potatoes  and  corn. 
There  are  gorges  through  which  rushes  a mountain 
stream,  and  high  precipices  over  which  leaps  a water- 
fall. Every  ravine,  and  gorge,  and  hillside  produces 
very  beautiful  ferns,  moss,  and  lichens.  Then  the 
mountains  are  around  you  on  every  side,  and  range  is 
piled  upon  range,  until  the  climax  is  reached  in  Kan- 
chanjanga,  which  sends  its  peak  up  twenty-eight  thou- 
sand feet  above  the  sea  level.  On  a clear  day  this 
stands  out  before  you,  glittering  in  the  sun  like  a moun- 
tain of  burnished  silver,  and  ten  thousand  feet  of  it  can 
be  seen  lying  under  its  thick  mantle  of  eternal  snow — a 
fit  winding-sheet  for  a dead  mountain. 


Traveling  m the  mountains.  A dandy 


One  of  the  sources  of  the  Ganges, 
Himalaya  Mountains 


CHAPTER  XI 


Some  of  the  Pests  of  India 

SOME  things  which  we  regard  as  pests  and  an- 
noyances are  really  blessings.  So  it  is  with 
some  of  those  things  in  India  which  plague  us. 
For  the  time  being,  however,  we  will  take  the 
superficial  view,  and  see  what  things  annoy  us  and  how 
they  do  so. 

The  white  ant  would  no  doubt  be  put  down  at  the 
head  of  the  list.  If  this  were  the  place  I might  write 
a chapter  on  these  little  animals,  but  I will  now  speak 
of  them  only  in  the  briefest  way.  The  eggs  which 
produce  these  little  creatures  are  laid  two  or  three 
feet  underground  by  a great  nasty-looking  white  grub, 
the  size  of  a man’s  little  finger.  When  the  insects  are 
first  hatched  they  are  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  long, 
of  a creamy  white  appearance,  and  resemble  a louse  in 
shape.  These  grow  to  be  one-fourth  of  an  inch  long, 
and  then  make  their  way  through  the  streets,  avenues, 
and  halls  of  their  colony  up  to  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  and  keep  on  building  up  until  sometimes  they 
have  a house  eight  feet  in  diameter  and  ten  feet  high. 
They  go  here  and  there  on  foraging  expeditions,  either 
under  the  surface  or  in  sealed  arches,  which  they  con- 
struct on  the  surface  of  the  ground.  They  always 
devour  everything  within  their  reach  which  can  be 
eaten.  Since  they  always  work  in  the  dark,  and  on 

103 


104 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


the  inside,  we  seldom  see  their  mischief  until  it  is  too 
late  to  remedy  it.  If  they  want  to  eat  a straw,  or  a 
bit  of  leaf  which  is  too  small  for  them  to  eat  from  the 
inside,  they  cover  it  with  their  earthy  secretion  and 
then  devour  it.  They  can  make  their  way  up  through 
brick  walls,  and  eat  the  door- jambs  and  wooden  beams 
of  the  house.  I have  told  you  how  the  floors  of  the 
pucca  houses  are  made,  and  yet  these  little  creatures 
will  often  find  a way  up  through  the  floor  and  get 
into  our  bookcase,  and  chests,  and  trunks,  unless  we 
keep  a strict  watch  for  them.  They  will  sometimes 
destroy  a pair  of  shoes  in  a single  night  if  they  happen 
to  come  across  them  in  their  search  for  food. 

Though  they  annoy  us  they  are  not  an  unmitigated 
evil ; in  fact,  they  are  a great  blessing.  For  thousands 
of  years  they  have  brought  up  from  the  subsoil  their 
secretion  and  spread  it  as  a dressing  for  the  soil,  on 
straw,  and  leaf,  and  dead  grass.  When,  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  rains,  they  change  their  form  and  come 
from  their  nests  by  millions,  it  is  a happy  time  for 
birds  and  fishes.  They  are  enlarged  to  four  or  five 
times  their  former  size  when  they  swarm,  put  on  wings, 
and  seem  happy  for  a brief  hour.  Their  wings  come 
off  and  they  drop  in  field,  or  road,  or  ditch,  or  tank, 
and  birds  and  fishes  feast  for  once  at  least. 

The  secretion  of  the  white  ant  contains  a fertilizer  of 
great  value,  as  the  writer  has  demonstrated,  and  many 
a field  which  has  nearly  been  abandoned  to  the  white 
ant  might  become  a veritable  garden. 

The  crows  would  come  next.  They  are  as  nearly 
omnipresent  as  anything  with  earthly  limitations  can 


Some  Pests  of  India 


105 


be.  The  cawing  of  the  crow  very  early  awakens  the 
villager  from  his  sleep,  and  reminds  the  missionary 
or  civilian,  who  may,  perchance,  be  dreaming  of  home, 
that  he  is  still  in  India.  It  is  not  an  uncommon  thing 
to  see  one  or  two  crows  on  the  back  of  cows  or  bullocks 
as  they  graze  in  the  field.  There  seems  to  be  some- 
thing in  the  skin,  or  lurking  in  the  hair,  which  furnishes 
the  crow  a dainty  morsel.  When  these  same  animals 
lie  down,  we  may  see  the  crow  picking  at  their  noses 
and  inside  of  their  ears.  When  the  animal  protests, 
the  crow  hops  back,  takes  a look  out  of  the  corner  of 
his  eye,  and  watches  his  chance  to  renew  the  attack. 

When  we  feed  our  hens  or  cattle,  we  must  look 
sharp  or  the  crow  will  get  more  than  his  share.  When 
the  man  is  setting  the  table,  a crow  may  perch  himself 
on  the  top  of  the  open  door  and  watch  the  process.  He 
will  turn  his  head  to  one  side  and  then  to  the  other,  to 
see  how  many  things  there  are  that  he  would  be  willing 
to  eat.  When  he  sees  something  which  he  would  like, 
and  which  he  thinks  he  could  carry,  he  looks  all  around 
to  see  if  the  coast  is  clear;  and  when  he  satisfies  him- 
self that  such  is  the  case,  he  swoops  down,  and  with  his 
beak  or  claw  carries  his  meal  up  into  a tree  or  some 
other  safe  place. 

One  morning  I bought  from  one  of  our  Christian 
women  some  eggs,  which  she  put  on  my  study  table.  I 
was  writing,  and  would  now  and  again  get  up  to  go 
into  another  room  or  out  of  doors.  I finally  noticed 
that  the  number  of  eggs  seemed  less,  but  there  were  no 
broken  shells  nor  any  evidence  that  anybody  had  been 
in  the  study.  Finally,  a crow  making  off  with  one  just 


106 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


as  I came  into  the  room  convinced  me  who  was  the 
thief.  The  crows  are  fond  of  ripe  fruit  of  all  kinds,  so 
that  fruit  must  be  picked  before  it  is  fully  ripe  or  be 
watched  very  closely.  Woe  betide  you  if  for  any  rea- 
son you  shoot  one  of  these  birds.  In  a very  few  mo- 
ments the  air  will  be  black  with  crows,  flying  here  and 
there  in  a frantic  manner,  and  cawing  so  loudly  that 
you  expect  to  see  your  neighbor  come  in  to  see  what 
has  happened.  But  even  these  are  a blessing,  for  they 
are  among  the  scavengers  of  the  country. 

Monkeys  are  a pest  with  no  redeeming  quality  that 
I could  ever  observe.  There  are  many  varieties  in  the 
country,  and  each  particular  place  seems  to  have  some 
different  variety;  but  they  are  a nuisance  be  the  kind 
what  it  may.  The  Hindus  adore  them,  so  their  life  is 
quite  safe,  as  no  person  cares  to  kill  them  and  incur 
the  displeasure  of  his  Hindu  neighbor.  In  our  part 
of  India  the  large,  black-faced,  gray,  long-tailed  mon- 
key abounded.  There  is  nothing  in  the  fruit  or  vege- 
table line  that  these  monkeys  will  not  eat,  so  we  must 
wage  a constant  war  with  them  if  we  would  have  a 
garden  or  an  orchard.  They  are  exceedingly  cunning. 
In  the  heat  of  the  day,  when  they  think  everybody  is 
taking  a nap,  they  are  after  their  dinner.  They  enter 
the  garden  stealthily,  looking  one  side  and  the  other 
as  they  come.  When  they  come  to  a row  of  peas  or 
anything  of  that  kind,  they  stand  on  their  hind  feet, 
and  with  both  front  ones  quickly  fill  their  mouths.  A 
few  monkeys  in  half  a day  would  utterly  ruin  a garden 
or  strip  an  orchard  of  its  fruit.  They  are  very  saucy 
at  times,  and  even  dangerous. 


Some  Pests  of  India 


107 


One  day  at  the  noon  hour,  while  we  were  resting, 
one  of  our  little  girls  came  into  our  room  screaming 
and  frightened  almost  to  death.  A large  monkey  had 
come  into  the  bedroom  where  she  was  sleeping,  though 
it  was  upstairs,  and  taken  hold  of  the  foot  of  the 
bed  and  shaken  it  violently  enough  to  wake  her  up. 
When  she  awoke,  there  stood  that  great  black-faced 
fellow  showing  all  his  teeth.  Hindu  prejudice  would 
not  have  kept  me  from  shooting  him  if  he  had  not  left 
the  room  too  quickly  for  me.  They  will  sometimes 
dispute  our  right  to  pass  along  a path.  In  that  case 
discretion  is  the  better  part  of  valor.  Once  some  of 
our  orphan  boys  at  Midnapore  were  stoning  some 
monkeys  which  were  up  in  a banyan  tree.  One  old 
fellow  came  down,  walked  up  to  the  foremost  boy, 
seized  him  by  the  shoulder  with  one  hand  and  with  the 
other  boxed  his  ears.  The  boy  was  frightened  badly, 
but  the  monkey  was  perfectly  serene. 

Snakes  are  reptiles  which  people  are  not  fond  of  as 
a rule.  In  this  country  we  have  an  exaggerated  idea  of 
the  snakes  of  India.  There  may  be  places  where  they 
are  numerous,  but  I have  not  seen  them.  The  cobra 
is  a dangerous  snake,  so  that  Europeans  generally 
carry  a lantern  when  they  go  out  after  dark ; but,  after 
all,  you  will  seldom  see  one.  We  are  cautious  because 
their  bite  is  fatal.  I have  been  around  a good  deal  in 
Orissa  and  Bengal,  and  have  not  in  fifteen  years  seen 
more  than  ten  or  fifteen  cobras  running  at  large. 

There  are  some  centipedes  and  a few  scorpions,  but 
with  care  one  need  experience  no  harm  from  them. 
Only  once  in  the  fifteen  years  I have  been  in  India,  was 


108 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


I bitten  by  any  of  these  poisonous  creatures,  and  that 
was  by  a centipede  which  was  in  my  hat.  He  had 
secreted  himself  within  the  walls  of  my  sun-hat,  and  I 
did  not  know  he  was  there  until  he  informed  me. 

We  never  really  know  why  dogs  are  spoken  of  in 
Scripture  as  being  among  the  vile  things  which  shall 
never  enter  the  gates  of  the  beautiful  city  until  we 
visit  the  Orient.  There  is  not  a redeeming  quality 
about  a dog  here.  You  could  not  by  any  possibility  in- 
duce one  to  drive  out  a cow  or  a monkey  from  the 
garden.  He  never  did  such  a thing  in  his  life,  and 
would  be  astonished  at  you  if  you  should  try  to  have 
him  do  such  a thing.  The  more  you  tried  to  have  him, 
the  more  he  would  go  in  the  opposite  direction.  The 
dogs  here  are  nearly  all  of  one  kind — yellow  or  black 
in  color,  with  hair  short  and  straight,  nose  pointed, 
forehead  very  receding,  head  and  tail  drooping,  lean, 
surly,  and  often  scabby.  They  never  have  a pleasant 
face  or  a wag  of  the  tail  for  anybody.  They  leisurely 
walk  about  the  streets  and  bazaars,  and  even  into  our 
houses,  ready  to  pick  up  any  stray  morsel  of  food. 

The  natives  have  a way  of  raising  their  hands  as 
if  they  would  strike  them,  but  as  they  seldom  do  the 
dogs  care  very  little  for  these  false  motions.  When 
we  try  to  frighten  them  away  in  the  same  manner,  they 
simply  stand  and  stare  at  us.  When,  however,  we  can 
convince  them  by  a whack  with  our  cane  that  we  are 
not  making  false  motions,  they  can  yelp  and  howl  as 
loudly  as  any  dog.  Their  bark  at  night  is  anything 
but  soothing,  and  especially  if  a person  is  inclined, 
through  fever  or  nervousness,  to  be  wakeful.  One 


A Bengal  barber  who  has  found  a job 


A sacred  bull,  Mohadabe 


109 


Some  Pests  of  India 


barks,  and  then  another  and  another,  until  you  think 
they  are  barking  for  a prize,  and  the  one  that  can  bark 
the  loudest  and  longest  gets  it.  The  bark  is  not  really 
a bark  such  as  we  hear  in  this  country,  but  more  of 
a howl.  They  do  something  of  the  work  of  the  scav- 
engers, but  the  jackals  could  do  that  better  and  save 
the  annoyances  the  dogs  bring.  Many  of  them  are 
owned  by  no  one.  The  Hindus  never  kill  anything,  so 
of  course  the  dogs  are  allowed  to  multiply  as  much  as 
they  like.  The  government  recognizes  them  as  a nui- 
sance, and  very  wisely  puts  a bounty  on  their  heads. 
Once  a year  the  low-caste  people  (maters)  in  some  dis- 
tricts set  apart  a day  for  killing  dogs.  They  will  take 
a large  bamboo  club  which  they  hold  by  both  hands, 
allowing  it  to  hang  down  their  backs.  In  this  way 
they  walk  about  the  streets  and  bazaars.  The  dog  sees 
nothing  of  the  club,  as  they  manage  to  keep  their  faces 
toward  him.  They  wait  until  his  attention  is  taken  up 
by  something  to  eat  or  smell,  when  they  suddenly  bring 
the  club  down  with  great  force  on  the  neck  of  the  un- 
suspecting animal,  and  he  soon  dies. 

The  Brahmani  bull  may  be  classed  among  the  pests. 
Some  one,  perhaps  on  account  of  some  peculiar  mark- 
ings, has  in  his  early  days  devoted  him  to  the  calling 
of  a sacred  bull,  and  so  he  has  wandered  about  through 
the  streets,  belonging  to  no  one  in  particular  and  to 
every  one  in  general.  He  usually  is  found  around  the 
temple,  and  goes  in  and  out  at  pleasure.  He  goes  into 
the  green  rice  fields,  or  to  the  shop  where  grain  is 
kept,  and  helps  himself.  He  of  course  is  always  fat 
and  saucy.  If  he  sees  in  the  garden  of  some  Euro- 


no 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


pean  some  choice  heads  of  cabbage,  he  forms  his  plans 
for  a feast  when  the  shades  of  night  shall  settle  down. 
One  of  these  animals  persistently  visited  our  garden 
in  the  middle  of  the  night,  until  finally,  upon  the  ad- 
vice of  the  magistrate,  we  captured  him  and  made  him 
over  to  the  city.  His  lordship  was  greatly  humbled 
when  he  had  to  come  down  to  drawing  cart  loads  of 
garbage. 

There  are  some  other  things  which  greatly  annoy 
us,  but  which  are  not  peculiar  to  India  except,  per- 
haps, that  they  flourish  there  to  a greater  extent. 
Among  these  are  the  little  red  ant,  the  mosquito,  lice, 
bedbugs,  and  fleas.  Some  of  these,  more  or  less,  are 
liable  to  prey  upon  us  the  year  round.  Every  Euro- 
pean, all  the  year,  provides  himself  with  a mosquito 
curtain  for  his  bed.  This  protects  him  fully  from  the 
mosquito,  unless  some  member  of  the  body  happens  to 
be  against  it,  but  unfortunately  affords  no  protection 
against  the  other  insufferable  insects. 

In  some  places  tigers  and  leopards  are  quite  abun- 
dant. These  destroy  cattle,  and  sometimes  human  life, 
though  as  a rule  they  do  not  molest  people,  unless 
sorely  pressed  by  hunger,  but  run  from  them  as  do  all 
other  wild  animals.  The  bear  is  very  fond  of  sugar- 
cane, and  comes  from  the  jungles  to  help  himself  dur- 
ing the  season.  In  a few  places  wild  elephants  commit 
depredations  now  and  again.  After  all,  these  things 
sound  a good  deal  worse  than  the  actual  experience 
with  them  really  is. 

Perhaps  we  could  hardly  class  insane  people  with 
pests,  and  yet  this  will  be  as  good  a place  as  any  to  say 


Some  Pests  of  India 


in 


that  these  are  left  to  wander  about  at  will.  There  are 
a few  asylums,  but  rarely  are  persons  committed. 
There  is,  however,  no  such  proportion  of  insane  as  in 
this  country.  If  there  were  the  land  would  be  a veri- 
table gehenna. 

The  same  is  true  of  lepers.  These  go  here  and  there,* 
and  even  engage  in  trade  and  sit  on  the  verandas  of 
people’s  houses.  For  these  there  are  a very  few  asylums 
also,  but  no  law  for  segregation.  To  accomplish  this 
would  be  beyond  the  power  of  the  government. 


H 


CHAPTER  XU 


Some  Characteristics  of  the  Natives 

DIFFERENT  parts  of  India,  no  doubt,  produce 
different  types  of  men,  but  what  I shall  say 
will  be  of  the  Bengali  as  I have  observed  him. 
He  is  exceedingly  polite  and,  as  a rule,  does 
not  want  to  say  anything  which  he  thinks  you  will 
not  want  to  hear.  This  leads  him  many  times  into 
telling  what  we  call  lies,  though  he  does  not  define  a 
lie  in  that  way.  As  an  example : Suppose  you  are  go- 
ing along  a strange  road,  and  inquire  of  a man  the 
distance  to  a certain  place.  He  naturally  thinks  you 
want  that  distance  to  be  as  little  as  possible,  so  he 
tells  you  it  is  two  miles  when  he  knows  it  is  six;  or, 
he  may  raise  his  chin  in  the  direction  of  the  place  and 
say  it  is  just  in  sight,  when  it  is  four  miles  away.  For 
this  same  reason  he  seldom  disagrees  with  you.  If  he 
cannot  really  assent  he  will  keep  quiet.  In  a public 
way  some  of  them  are  fond  of  discussion,  but  in  their 
homes  they  seldom  oppose  you.  This  disposition 
makes  you  feel  that  you  can  seldom  depend  on  what 
they  say.  When  we  were  trying  to  get  land  to  erect 
a mission  house  in  Contai,  I went  to  see  the  sub- 
divisional  officer,  and  told  him  what  we  wanted  to  do. 
He  said  that  he  was  delighted  that  we  were  coming, 
that  Contai  was  a wicked  place  and  needed  something 
of  the  kind,  and  he  would  be  pleased  to  assist  in  any 
112 


Some  Characteristics 


113 


way  that  lay  in  his  power.  I thanked  him  very 
heartily,  but  was  sure  all  the  time  he  would  not  help, 
but  hinder.  And  so  the  sequel  proved;  for  we  had 
to  get  help  from  the  English  magistrate  or  impedi- 
ments would  have  been  placed  in  our  way  all  along, 
and  we  would  never  have  gone  to  Contai.  We  call 
this  kind  of  talk  lying,  but  they  define  a lie  as  mean- 
ing something  like  this:  If  I tell  you  something,  and 
you  sustain  financial  loss  through  my  untrue  state- 
ment, that  is  a lie ; but  if  I tell  you  the  distance  is  two 
miles  when  it  is  four,  that  is  no  lie,  for  you  would 
have  to  travel  over  the  distance  whether  it  was  two  or 
four  miles.  Their  saying  it  was  two  miles  did  not 
cause  me  any  additional  travel.  This  disposition  to 
please  is  prominent  when  self-interest  is  not  involved. 
Always  put  this  down  as  an  exception  to  every  rule. 
According  to  our  ideas,  the  native  is  a very  untruth- 
ful man.  Doctor  Pentecost  made  this  statement, 
though  in  little  stronger  terms,  and  was  taken  to  task 
by  the  native  press  for  it.  I think  Doctor  Pentecost 
was  not  far  wrong.  If  I had  had  no  experience  myself, 
the  attitude  of  the  people  toward  each  other  would  con- 
vince me  of  this.  They  seldom  trust  each  other’s  word. 
In  matters  of  business  they  have  so  little  confidence  in 
each  other,  that  a bargain  is  considered  of  no  value 
until  money  has  exchanged  hands.  A man  may  agree 
to  do  a thing,  but  if  you  have  given  him  no  money  he 
considers  himself  under  no  obligation  to  do  it.  They 
say  of  us  sometimes,  “ You  are  very  green,”  because 
we  trust  their  word,  and  that  we  ought  to  know  that 
all  men  are  liars.  I do  not  say  that  they  are  all  vicious 


114 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


liars,  but  the  tendency  is  so  much  to  conceal,  and  there 
is  so  much  want  of  frankness,  that  it  is  unsafe  to  de- 
pend upon  their  word.  Out  of  this  has  grown  their 
way  of  answering  a question.  We  seldom  hear  them 
answer  a question  direct.  Almost  always  it  is  an- 
swered by  asking  another.  You  say  to  a man,  “ Will 
you  buy  this  cow  ? ” “ Where  would  I get  money  to 
buy  a cow  ? ” he  would  answer.  Or  you  say,  “ You 
did  not  come  to  work  yesterday?”  He  would  reply, 
“How  could  a man  work  who  had  a fever?”  This 
sounds  impertinent,  and  is  very  trying  at  first,  but  you 
find  this  is  their  way  of  answering  questions.  The 
manner  in  which  they  can  ask  and  answer  questions 
without  fully  committing  themselves,  is  simply  mar- 
velous to  the  people  of  the  blunt,  plain,  practical  nature 
of  the  Anglo-Saxon. 

In  matters  of  deal  they  are  without  a conscience. 
The  limit  they  will  ask  for  a thing  is  the  amount  they 
think  they  can  get  for  it,  regardless  of  its  market 
value.  This  is  nearly  a universal  rule.  We  think 
a man  a Jew  here  if  he  add  twenty-five  per  cent  to  his 
real  selling  price,  but  it  is  not  an  uncommon  thing 
for  them  to  ask  three  hundred  per  cent  more  than 
they  expect  to  take.  This  is  especially  true  if  they 
think  you  do  not  know  the  real  price,  or  if  you  are  so 
situated  that  they  know  you  must  buy.  The  general 
rule  is  that  they  ask  you  just  double  what  they  in  the 
end  expect  to  take.  They  are  very  shrewd  in  bar- 
gains, and  resort  to  many  tricks  to  make  a few  cents. 
They  can  adulterate  equal  to  the  Yankee  in  some 
things.  Water  goes  in  milk,  small  gravel  in  rice,  and 


Some  Characteristics 


115 


sand  in  sugar.  They  can  fill  their  native  fabrics  with 
starch,  and  put  putty  in  defective  furniture.  They 
have  studied  the  art  for  centuries,  and  according  to  the 
number  of  their  products  will  not  be  outdone  by  any 
other  nation.  If  they  are  very  untruthful,  they  also 
have  a faculty  of  getting  out  when  caught  in  a lie  as 
easily  as  can  be.  In  fact,  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
prove  a falsehood  on  any  of  them.  You  may  think 
you  have  a chain  of  evidence  that  will  surely  convict 
the  man  of  a wilful,  deliberate  lie,  but  you  find  your 
chain  a rope  of  sand,  and  you  are  left  in  the  dilemma 
rather  than  the  man  that  has  lied,  even  though  your 
own  eyes  form  part  of  the  evidence. 

They  have  very  little  inventive  genius,  and  hence 
are  no  organizers.  They  are  imitators,  and  can  make 
almost  everything  if  you  give  them  a pattern.  We 
find  them  in  machine  shops  making  engines,  and  in 
various  vocations  where  one  would  think  genius  was 
required;  but  they  work  from  patterns.  They  have 
had  armies  large  enough  to  have  annihilated  the  Eng- 
lish, but  could  not  plan  a battle.  They  can  run  steam- 
boats and  railroad  trains,  but  they  can  go  only  so  far 
as  they  have  learned.  If  the  unexpected  arises  they 
are  in  a dilemma.  If  a cartman  break  the  axle  of 
his  cart  when  he  does  not  happen  to  have  another 
with  him,  he  will  squat  down  and  put  a sheet  over  his 
head,  if  it  be  winter,  and  there  he  will  sit  for  hours 
waiting  for  something  to  turn  up.  He  really  does 
not  know  what  to  do,  and  it  takes  several  hours  for 
the  idea  to  get  through  his  head  that  he  must  go  to 
some  village  and  hunt  up  another  axle. 


116 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


Revenge  is  a disposition  abnormally  cultivated,  and 
it  lurks  in  the  bosom  where  you  least  suspect  it.  A 
family  feud  is  handed  down  fourteen  generations. 
For  the  sake  of  getting  revenge  for  a trifling  injury, 
they  will  jeopardize  a person’s  life.  Sometimes  they 
will  set  fire  to  one’s  house,  and  the  roof  being  of  straw 
it  may  happen  that  the  inmates  cannot  escape,  but  are 
consumed  in  the  burning  building;  and  if  they  escape, 
their  all  is  gone  in  the  loss  of  their  home.  The  most 
serious  charges  are  brought  in  court  for  the  sake  of 
being  revenged  over  some  real  or  fancied  injury. 

The  Hindus  are  proverbial  for  going  to  law.  Two 
things  actuate  them : one  is  the  desire  for  revenge  and 
the  other  the  love  of  distinction.  Just  opposite  our 
house  in  Balasore  were  two  courthouses,  in  which 
there  were  at  least  five  places  where  cases  might  be 
tried.  These  courts  were  filled  the  year  round.  Not 
that  all  the  courts  were  in  session  all  the  time,  but  some 
of  them  were,  and  often  three  or  four  of  them.  Aside 
from  these,  the  judge  came  occasionally  to  hold 
criminal  courts  of  a higher  grade  in  the  circuit  house. 
From  morning  until  night,  week  in  and  week  out,  the 
cry  of  the  crier  could  be  heard  as  he  called  out  the 
name  of  parties  in  the  case,  or  the  name  of  some  wit- 
ness. A man  hardly  thinks  he  belongs  to  a respectable 
family  unless  he  can  boast  of  at  least  one  long-drawn- 
out  lawsuit.  I shall  remember  a long  time  a conver- 
sation I had  with  one  of  our  new  converts.  He  had 
been  a poor  man  and  common  laborer,  but  had  married 
a woman  who  also  had  employment.  The  two  re- 
ceived a good  salary,  so  that  he  could  lay  by  a dollar 


Some  Characteristics 


117 


a month.  He  had  been  working  for  me,  but  did  not 
come  for  some  days.  Finally,  when  he  came,  I asked 
him  why  he  had  not  come  the  past  week.  He  straight- 
ened up  as  if  he  were  a man  of  a great  deal  of  impor- 
tance and  said,  “ Sahib,  I have  a lawsuit  on  hand.” 
The  inconvenience  the  people  suffer  on  account  of 
these  cases  is  very  great.  They  will  walk  twenty  or 
thirty  miles  to  be  present  on  the  appointed  day  for 
their  suit,  and  then  wait  perhaps  two  or  three  days  for 
their  case  to  be  called  up.  They  have  little  money  to 
use,  and  many  times  have  hard  fare  during  the  days 
of  waiting.  Especially  is  this  true  in  the  case  of 
many  witnesses.  When  the  case  is  called,  for  some 
trivial  reason  it  is  postponed  ten  days  or  a month,  when 
all  wend  their  way  home,  to  return  again  on  the  ap- 
pointed day.  Then,  again,  it  may  be  postponed,  and 
so  on  it  goes  month  after  month,  until  sometimes  a 
whole  year  is  consumed  in  this  kind  of  work.  The 
satisfaction  that  each  party  gets  out  of  it  is,  that  the 
other  party  suffers  as  much  through  these  long  jour- 
neys and  tedious  waitings  as  they.  Every  time  the 
case  is  postponed  there  is  an  additional  cost. 

The  lawyers  have  a habit  of  receiving  a fee  from 
each  side.  I think  this  is  peculiar  to  India.  If  they 
are  in  a lawsuit,  they  think  if  they  can  fee  their  op- 
ponent's lawyer  with  a larger  amount  than  he  can,  the 
lawyer  will  be  more  interested  in  their  case  than  he 
will  in  the  case  of  his  client. 

The  people  have  a way  not  only  of  assuming  that 
they  are  innocent  until  proven  guilty,  but  of  actually 
thinking  they  are  innocent.  When  an  accusation  is 


118 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


fully  proven  they  confess,  but  are  very  careful  to  con- 
fess only  what  has  been  proven.  When  they  confess 
and  ask  forgiveness,  and  you  assure  them  that  they 
are  forgiven,  they  think  that  the  forgiveness  wipes 
out  not  only  the  guilt  but  the  deed  itself,  and  restores 
them  to  the  position  they  were  in  before  the  sin  was 
committed.  Often  have  I seen  great  surprise  ex- 
pressed when  I have  refused  to  restore  to  some  per- 
son the  work  in  which  he  had  shown  himself  to  be 
a defaulter. 

The  people  are  slaves  to  custom.  All  that  need  be 
said  by  you  as  a reason  for  doing  what  you  do  is, 
“ This  is  our  custom.”  This  puts  a stop  to  any  argu- 
ment. You  will  very  seldom  hear  any  other  reason 
given  for  doing  anything.  This  of  course  obstructs 
all  progress.  I was  very  well  acquainted  with  a native 
judge  in  Midnapore,  and  had  frequent  conversations 
with  him  on  different  subjects.  He  was  a well-edu- 
cated man,  and  spoke  English  fluently.  I asked  him 
one  day  what  his  opinion  was  in  regard  to  child  mar- 
riage. He  could  not  speak  too  strongly  against  it. 
He  was  sure  the  race  was  enfeebled  by  it,  the  mortality 
of  the  country  increased,  and  a great  deal  of  mental 
and  physical  suffering  inflicted  on  the  young  child 
wife.  I knew  the  judge  had  two  or  three  young 
daughters,  so  I said,  “ Judge,  you  are  not  going  to 
conform  to  the  custom,  are  you?  You  know  what  is 
right;  I hope  you  will  follow  your  convictions  and  set 
your  countrymen  an  example.”  He  said,  “ This  is  our 
custom,  and  what  can  one  man  do  to  oppose  it?  If  I 
would  not  marry  off  my  daughters  at  the  proper  time 


Some  Characteristics 


119 


I should  be  in  disgrace,  and  as  I could  not  endure  this 
I must  do  as  the  rest  do.”  I said,  a little  warmly, 
“ Judge,  if  a man  like  you,  with  both  a knowledge  of 
what  you  ought  to  do,  and  a social  position  that  would 
help  you  greatly  if  you  attempted  any  reform,  and 
also  with  independent  means,  will  not  follow  your  con- 
victions, who  do  you  expect  will  lead  in  reforms? ’’ 
He  confessed  he  ought  to,  but  could  not.  The  posi- 
tion of  this  gentleman  is  the  position  of  many.  Many 
of  them  would  be  glad  to  break  away  from  their  cus- 
toms, in  some  things,  but  they  bind  them  as  with  a 
chain  of  steel. 

Yet,  after  all,  how  much  are  Americans  different? 
We  say  what  we  would  do  if  we  were  in  their  place, 
but  would  we?  Our  women  must  wear  high-heeled 
shoes,  though  it  is  as  injurious  to  health  as  the  bind- 
ing of  the  feet  of  the  women  of  China.  Fashion  points 
the  way,  and  we  all  walk  in  it  whether  we  want  to  or 
not.  There  and  here  we  need  reformers  who  have  the 
courage  to  withstand  bad  customs. 

The  people  are  very  fond  of  display.  This  is  shown 
in  the  case  of  the  rich  by  the  number  of  servants  they 
can  keep,  the  gold  jewelry  and  precious  stones  they  can 
wear,  and  the  dash  and  glitter  of  their  turnouts  as 
they  go  for  a drive.  It  is  seen  in  the  poor  by  the 
amount  of  jewelry  they  put  on,  even  if  made  of  shell, 
lac,  glass,  or  brass.  They  think  the  clanking  of  the 
heavy  pieces  of  their  jewelry  denotes  about  as  much 
distinction  as  some  of  our  ladies  do  by  the  rustling  of 
their  silks.  On  great  festival  days  the  streets  are  bril- 
liant with  red  and  yellow  garments  of  the  women. 


120 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


They  make  garlands  of  large  red  and  yellow  flowers 
to  festoon  their  houses  and  adorn  their  persons. 

The  average  native  is  a hard-working  man.  Many 
think  because  they  live  in  a warm  climate,  they  are 
like  the  African  or  other  tribes  who  will  only  work 
when  compelled  to,  but  such  is  not  the  case.  Indeed, 
they  often  work  under  circumstances  that  would  try 
the  pluck  of  many  an  American.  It  is  true  they  are 
“ to  the  manner  born,”  and  can  endure  heat  that  the 
European  cannot,  but  still  the  heat  affects  them,  and 
the  cold  even  more.  In  the  hot  months  they  will  get 
up  and  start  on  their  journey  at  two  o’clock  in  the 
morning.  This  is  a regular  custom  among  cartmen 
and  pilgrims.  Very  early  in  the  morning,  also,  you 
will  find  them  in  their  fields.  It  is  true  there  are  lazy 
people  there  as  here,  but  they  are  the  exception. 

They  are  a frugal  people;  they  love  to  make  a dis- 
play, it  is  true,  but  that  is  only  on  occasions.  They 
have  big  dinners  for  friends  and  kinsmen,  but  these 
are  not  frequent.  Ordinarily  their  meals  are  of  the 
plainest  kind,  and  their  dress  of  but  little  expense. 
Though  most  of  them  are  poor,  they  try  very  hard  to 
lay  by  something  for  a time  of  still  sorer  need.  This 
is  not  laid  by  in  money,  but  jewelry,  which  can  always 
be  sold  for  the  market  value  of  the  gold  or  silver  it 
contains.  They  will  pinch  themselves,  and  almost 
starve  before  they  will  draw  on  their  little  store  laid  by. 

Many  of  them  are  very  anxious  for  an  education, 
and  especially  an  English  education.  In  Madras  many 
of  the  common  coolies  can  speak  English  fairly  well, 
and  in  Calcutta  almost  all  native  merchants  have  a fair 


Some  Characteristics 


121 


knowledge  of  English.  They  are  also  very  fond  of 
airing  their  English,  and  some  use  it  very  amusingly, 
as  the  following  letter,  written  by  a Bengali  babu  to 
Dr.  O.  R.  Bachelor,  of  Midnapore,  will  show: 

My  Dear  Godfather:  My  registered  note  addressed  to  your 
name  has  been  sent  by  post  to  Midnapore  during  you  had 
gone  to  America.  An  answer  which  gave  by  Mr.  Z.  F. 
Griffin  gave  me  much  sorrow,  for  your  answer  reached  me  at 
that  time.  In  the  November  last  an  information  has  been 
given  me  by  Mr.  Coldren  at  Balasore  of  your  returning  from 
there  to  Midnapore.  Therefore  I send  this  registered  note 
for  your  answer.  It  is  proposed  by  many  learned  and  gen- 
tlemen of  your  kindness  to  helpless  men  in  their  wants,  de- 
pending on  their  saying,  I am  going  most  respectfully  to  in- 
form you  my  want.  I have  descended  from  a Hindu  tribe; 
forty-five  years  of  my  age,  my  mother  was  put  at  the  point 
of  death.  My  father  is  always  unkind  and  surly  fellow.  . . 
You  will  be  remarkable  to  the  story  of  my  much  above  men- 
tioned that  his  principle  duty  is  that  his  sons  will  be  dunce.  . . 
My  godfather,  you  shall  have  tried  to  get  post  under  the 
police  and  postal  department.  I hope  if  you  kindly  recom- 
mend the  superintendent  of  these  offices,  they  must  appoint 
me  at  any  post  of  my  worthy.  It  is  very  important  to  let  you 
know  that  you  should  not  hate  me  though  being  a Hindu.  I 
am  going  to  wait  your  true  refuge.  I may  be  baptized  after 
which  if  I will  be  had  any  post  under  my  office.  If  you  please 
and  kindly  try  get  me  a post  without  preachership,  I will  be 
baptized  unless  I cannot.  . . 

I am  your  dear  godson, 


They  do  not  care  for  knowledge  so  much  for  its 
own  sake  as  for  what  it  will  bring  to  them  financially. 
The  great  ambition'  is  to  pass  the  entrance  examination 
in  the  university,  or  to  try  to  pass.  They  will  boast 
as  loudly  of  having  tried  and  failed,  as  of  having  tried 


122 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


and  succeeded.  After  passing  and  receiving  an  ap- 
pointment, they  seem  to  think  they  have  reached  the 
goal.  They  seldom  continue  any  course  of  study,  but 
pass  their  time  after  office  hours  in  conversation  or 
games. 

They  have  remarkable  memories.  Away  back,  thou- 
sands of  years  ago,  they  learned  their  sacred  books 
and  handed  down  the  contents  by  memory,  and  that 
has  to  some  extent  been  kept  up  all  through  the  cen- 
turies. The  priests  begin  very  early  in  life  to  commit 
the  shasters,  and  they  can  sing  for  hours  from  memory 
the  verses  of  some  of  their  poetical  writings.  The 
whole  nation  has  been  developed  along  that  line,  for 
those  who  could  not  read  or  write  have  had  to  depend 
on  their  memory  for  their  knowledge  of  facts. 

They  are  an  eloquent,  poetical  people.  Their  imagi- 
nation is  vivid,  and  their  language  being  rich  in  words 
they  find  no  trouble  in  giving  expression  to  their 
thoughts.  Some  people  in  America  who  listened  to  the 
addresses  of  the  representatives  of  the  Hindu  religion 
and  the  Brahmo-Somaj  at  the  World’s  Parliament  of 
Religions,  can  testify  to  this  fact.  Some  of  the  most 
eloquent  men  I have  ever  heard  are  natives  of  India. 
They  are  very  quick  to  see  a point,  even  though  the 
thought  be  covered  by  the  words  of  a parable  or  a com- 
parison. Even  the  most  ignorant  have  not  only  a 
poetical  turn  of  mind,  but  can  also  understand  the 
point  in  an  argument.  Being  not  overscrupulous  as  to 
the  exact  facts,  they  can  embellish  a narrative  and 
make  it  very  telling. 

They  are  great  lovers  of  home.  If  a person  were 


Some  Characteristics 


123 


simply  to  pass  through  the  country  and  observe  the 
number  of  people  away  from  home,  either  for  the  sake 
of  work  or  on  a religious  pilgrimage,  he  would  at 
once  think  these  people  care  nothing  for  home.  But 
they  do.  It  is  true  they  have  no  such  homes  as  we 
have;  where  husband,  wife,  and  children  come  around 
the  same  table  or  hearthstone,  figuratively  speaking, 
yet  the  wife  loves  her  husband,  and  in  many  cases  he  is 
no  doubt  fond  of  her.  The  mother  also  loves  her  chil- 
dren, and  the  children  the  mother.  It  is  a great  trial 
to  the  family  when  the  little  wife,  ten  or  eleven  years 
of  age,  is  taken  from  the  home  of  her  father  and 
mother.  It  is  also  a trial  when  they  start  off  on  their 
long  religious  pilgrimage.  They  well  know  that  the 
chances  are  they  may  never  return,  so  as  they  take  the 
last  look  at  the  old  home,  even  though  it  be  humble,  it 
is  with  many  a heartache.  It  is  often  difficult  to  get 
them  to  leave  the  place  of  their  birth,  even  though  they 
may  better  their  condition  by  so  doing.  Often  only 
when  hunger  stares  them  in  the  face  can  they  be  in- 
duced to  do  so. 

Another  very  commendable  custom  is  the  way  they 
have  of  providing  for  their  joint  families.  This  does 
not  beget  the  greatest  enterprise,  but  provides  a home 
and  food  for  the  indolent,  the  unfortunate,  or  the  un- 
employed in  the  family.  If  a man  has  half  a score  of 
sons,  each  one  brings  his  wife  to  his  father’s  house,  and 
here  they  all  live  from  a common  purse.  If  only  one 
in  the  ten  has  employment,  he  will  cheerfully  hand  over 
his  wages  each  month  to  his  mother,  who  is  queen  in 
her  realm — the  house.  Sometimes  as  many  as  a hun- 


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India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


clred  persons  have  a common  home,  and  no  one  of  the 
hundred  will  want  as  long  as  any  one  of  the  number 
has  anything  to  divide. 

The  Hindus  are  a very  devotional  people.  They 
expect  every  man  to  have  a religion  as  much  as  a 
nationality.  With  them  it  matters  little  what  their 
morals  may  be,  but  they  are  still  religious.  Every 
man  must  do  certain  things  in  the  religious  line  when 
these  things  are  demanded,  and  if  he  be  a good  ortho- 
dox Hindu  there  are  many  duties  to  perform.  They 
make  him  observe  certain  days,  and  send  him  on  long 
pilgrimages,  and  make  him  give  of  his  substance, 
though  that  may  be  but  little.  It  matters  not  what  the 
demand,  he  must  comply.  Visit  Muttra,  Brindaban, 
Benares,  Hurdwar,  Puri,  and  a hundred  other  shrines, 
and  you  will  be  convinced  that  the  Hindu  is  a very  re- 
ligious man. 

He  is  master  of  the  art  of  disorganization.  It  seems 
impossible  for  him  to  grasp  the  idea  of  organization. 
This  may  account  for  many  things  in  his  history. 

To  illustrate:  It  was  my  misfortune  to  have  a good 
deal  of  building  to  do,  and  especially  during  our  last 
term.  It  is  true  I had  a foreman  who  was  supposed  to 
look  after  the  work,  but  he  was  also  a native.  I knew 
their  weakness,  so  happened  around  as  often  as  possi- 
ble. Sometimes  I had  as  many  as  forty  people  at  work. 
I would  often  find  the  masons  standing  for  want  of 
material.  Too  many  carrying  brick  and  too  few  mor- 
tar. I would  readjust  matters  and  get  all  running  like 
clockwork.  If  I should  go  away  and  come  back  after 
an  hour,  I would  find  all  my  arrangements  upset.  In 


Some  Characteristics 


125 


every  walk  of  life  you  see  this  cropping  out.  Things 
are  done  by  the  slowest  and  hardest  methods. 

Perhaps  there  is  no  one  trait  of  character  which 
gives  the  missionaries  more  real  heartache  than  the 
ingratitude  of  the  people.  It  was  my  duty  to  feed 
famine  sufferers  for  nearly  three  months,  and  also  to 
care  for  famine  relief  works,  and  the  amount  of  work 
which  such  things  involve  is  not  a little,  and  the  an- 
noyance, and  at  times  really  sickening  experiences,  are 
not  a few.  In  both  of  these  measures  I took  the 
initiative,  and  yet  no  manifestation  of  gratitude  on  the 
part  of  any  of  these  did  I see. 

At  different  times,  in  trying  to  shield  persons  from 
the  oppression  of  others,  I have  not  only  done  a lot 
of  work,  but  at  times  been  to  considerable  expense  and 
annoyance,  but  with  no  apparent  response.  Doctor 
McDonald  tells  us  in  one  of  his  books,  that  the  rea- 
son is  the  Hindu  believes  that  there  is  no  such  thing 
as  disinterested  kindness,  and  if  you  do  a kindness 
you  are  only  paying  a debt  contracted  in  some  previous 
existence,  and  therefore  there  is  no  occasion  for  grati- 
tude. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
Occupations 

I AM  often  asked,  “ What  do  the  people  do  ? ” That 
question  cannot  be  answered  in  a single  sentence. 
If  we  would  see  them  as  they  are,  we  must  glance 
at  their  separate  occupations.  The  largest  class 
in  Bengal  are  farmers.  Only  five  out  of  every  hun- 
dred live  in  the  cities.  When  we  remember  that  in 
England  sixty-six,  and  in  America  twenty-two  out  of 
each  hundred  live  in  towns  and  cities,  we  see  more 
clearly  the  rural  nature  of  the  Indian  people.  I have 
told  you  something  of  what  these  farmers  produce. 
They  require  but  a few  tools  to  do  their  work.  A plow 
with  a single  handle,  a sickle,  a heavy,  short-handled 
hoe,  and  a yoke  of  bullocks,  are  about  all  that  is  neces- 
sary. If  they  need  to  irrigate  the  land,  a few  more 
things  are  required.  If  they  irrigate  from  a tank  or 
a river,  a scoop  is  made  of  woven  bamboo  splints.  On 
each  side  of  this  a rope  is  attached,  by  means  of  which 
two  men  raise  the  water,  simply  by  a sort  of  swinging 
motion.  If  it  needs  to  be  raised  higher,  sometimes  a 
sweep  is  constructed. 

In  northern  India  thousands  of  wells  furnish  the 
water  for  irrigation.  Bullocks  raise  the  water  from 
them.  These  are  exclusive  of  the  many  irrigation 
canals.  Bullocks  plow  the  fields,  carry  in  most  of  the 
grain,  tread  it  out,  and  carry  both  straw  and  rice  to 
126 


Occupations 


127 


market  on  their  backs.  With  these  diverse  duties,  the 
farmer  hardly  has  the  last  of  his  straw  carried  off 
before  he  has  to  began  plowing  again. 

Landholders  are  men  whose  forefathers  had  large 
estates,  which  the  government  has  allowed  them  to 
keep  by  paying  a certain  annual  land  rent.  These 
landlords  do  not  work  their  own  land,  but  let  it  to  ten- 
ants. The  former  live  on  the  fat  of  the  land,  and 
many  of  them  have  been  very  oppressive. 

There  are  many  who  cultivate  no  land,  but  live  by 
working  here  and  there  as  they  can  find  a day’s  work. 
These  are  called  coolies,  and  their  pay  is  about  five 
cents  a day,  and  they  board  themselves.  The  ambition 
of  nearly  every  country  coolie  is  to  get  a piece  of  land 
which  he  can  call  his  own,  though  in  reality  no  person 
can  absolutely  own  land  in  India.  Many  small  farm- 
ers do  coolie  work  when  they  can  get  it  to  do. 

There  are  in  the  bazaars  manufacturers  of  different 
kinds.  No  steam  or  water-power  is  employed,  but  all 
work  is  done  by  men,  women,  or  bullocks.  Large 
quantities  of  brass  are  used  in  dishes.  This  is  melted 
and  run  into  a mold  of  the  required  shape,  after  which 
the  articles  are  cut  and  polished.  Some  very  nice  work 
is  done  in  this  way,  and  some  beautiful  Carved  brass- 
work  is  turned  out  from  Benares,  Moradabad,  and 
other  places. 

The  people  are  very  fond  of  jewelry,  and  often  hoard 
their  money  in  this  way,  so  there  are  many  goldsmiths 
and  silversmiths  in  the  country.  Very  little  gold  is  in 
circulation  in  India,  and  the  reason  assigned  is  that 
every  gold  coin  is  at  once  locked  up  in  jewelry.  These 


i 


128 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


smiths,  with  a hollow  bamboo  branch  for  a blowpipe, 
a pot  of  charcoal,  a file,  and  a pair  of  pincers,  and 
two  or  three  other  rude  instruments,  will  melt  the  gold 
and  silver  and  fashion  it  as  you  wish.  Some  of  the 
finest  work  in  the  world  in  these  metals  is  done  in 
India.  One  peculiarity  of  these  smiths  is  that  they 
can  blow  a constant  blast  of  wind  through  their  blow- 
pipe. The  breath  enters  the  nose,  goes  into  the  lungs, 
and  out  of  the  mouth  in  a constant  circuit.  This  may 
seem  incredible  because  we  cannot  do  it.  But  they 
can,  and  do. 

The  blacksmith  sits  on  his  heels  and  pounds  out  his 
wares;  i.  e.,  what  of  them  he  doesn’t  burn  up.  He  is 
not  the  man  who  shoes  the  horses  and  bullocks.  He 
makes  the  shoes  and  another  tradesman  comes  to  the 
stable  to  put  them  on.  He  is  a little  too  high  up  in  the 
social  scale  to  blow  his  own  bellows,  so  another  man 
sits  on  his  heels  to  blow  the  bellows.  A blacksmith 
shop  can  be  improvised  any  time  inside  of  half  an 
hour  under  a tree.  The  bellows  consists  of  two  goat- 
skins, with  two  flat  strips  of  wood,  sixteen  inches  long, 
so  fastened  to  each  skin  that  when  the  man  takes  hold 
of  one,  by  putting  his  thumb  over  one  strip  and  his 
fingers  over  the  other,  he  can  open  it.  When  he  opens 
it,  of  course  the  air  rushes  in,  and  he  blows  it  out 
through  an  iron  nozzle  at  the  other  end  by  closing  his 
hand  and  pressing  down  on  the  skin.  He  has  two 
skins  which  he  alternately  opens  and  closes,  so  making 
a constant  blowing  at  the  fire  where  these  nozzles 
come  together.  To  make  the  place  for  the  fire,  all  that 
is  needed  is  a little  stiff  mud  plastered  around  the 


Occupations 


129 


nozzles  of  the  bellows  and  a heavy  stone  to  hold  them 
down.  With  a basket  of  charcoal,  a heavy  piece  of 
iron  for  an  anvil,  a pair  of  tongs,  and  a hammer,  he  is 
equipped  for  business.  I was  rude  enough  to  laugh 
outright  the  first  time  I saw  a blacksmith  at  work. 

When  a brick-mason  begins  a job,  his  first  work 
probably  will  be  to  make  his  brick.  When  taken  from 
the  mold  that  holds  but  a single  brick,  they  are  spread 
around  upon  the  grass  to  dry.  When  enough  are  dry 
they  prepare  to  burn  them.  This  is  not  done  as  we 
burn  brick.  They  make  as  many  walls  a foot  high  and 
eight  inches  thick  as  they  want  arches.  These  walls 
are  as  long  as  the  kiln  is  to  be  wide,  and  about  fifteen 
inches  apart.  Into  this  open  place,  between  these  sev- 
eral little  walls,  they  put  dry  firewood.  Now  they  be- 
gin to  build  up  the  rest  of  the  kiln,  putting  the  bricks 
over  the  wood  in  such  a way  that  they  will  not  fall 
when  the  wood  burns  out.  So  it  goes  clear  to  the  top, 
mixing  together  brick  and  wood.  Sometimes  they  put 
in  pieces  of  logs,  eighteen  inches  in  diameter.  When 
it  is  all  laid  up,  fire  is  set  to  the  fine  wood  below,  and 
inside  of  twenty-four  hours  all  of  the  wood  in  the  kiln 
is  ablaze.  When  the  wood  is  consumed  the  bricks  are 
burned. 

The  brick-mason  next  prepares  his  lime.  First  in 
order  is  to  have  the  stone.  In  our  part  of  India  this 
was  simply  nuggets  of  limestone,  called  gingta,  and 
was  usually  gathered  by  women.  They  find  it  lying 
around  in  waste  places  and  in  ditches.  It  is  not  found 
in  all  places,  and  the  supply,  even  where  it  is  found, 
may  become  exhausted,  so  at  times  it  must  be  brought 


130 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


long  distances  in  carts  or  otherwise.  After  the  gingta 
is  gathered  it  must  be  burned.  For  this  purpose  a 
round  kiln  is  made  from  four  to  eight  feet  in  diameter, 
four  or  five  feet  high,  and  open  at  the  top.  In  order  to 
have  a draft,  two  or  three  openings  are  left  in  the  wall 
at  the  bottom.  First  a little  straw  and  dry  wood  are 
put  in,  then  three  baskets  of  charcoal  and  one  of 
gingta.  In  this  proportion  the  charcoal  and  lime  are 
put,  until  the  kiln  is  full,  when  it  is  set  on  fire.  When 
the  charcoal  is  consumed  the  lime  is  burned.  Wood 
may  be  used  instead  of  charcoal,  but  more  is  required. 
One  strange  thing  about  the  burning  of  brick  and  lime, 
is  th'at  these  masons  will  not  set  fire  to  their  lime-kilns 
nor  their  brick-kilns.  They  say  the  fire  will  destroy 
life  in  the  lime  and  the  brick,  and  they  must  not  take 
life.  They  are  consistent  enough  to  cause  some  one 
of  a lower  caste  to  start  the  fire. 

Walls  are  laid  somewhat  as  they  are  in  America, 
only  very  slowly,  and  with  a great  deal  of  water.  The 
masons  have  a little  straw  wisp  beside  them  and  a jar 
of  water.  These  are  used  every  now  and  again  in 
sprinkling  the  walls.  Often  a course  of  brick  is  laid 
on  the  outside  and  inside  of  the  wall,  and  the  place  be- 
tween is  filled  with  water,  which  is  allowed  to  remain 
until  absorbed  by  the  brick,  while  they  work  upon  some 
other  part  of  the  wall  or  retire  for  a smoke.  May  this 
not  account  for  the  fact  that  their  buildings  will  some- 
times stand  for  more  than  a thousand  years?  They 
make  beautiful  cornices  and  all  kinds  of  stucco-work 
with  this  lime.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add  that 
they  take  their  time  to  do  a job.  The  wages  of  a 


Bringing  pottery  to  market 


The  boy  who  herds  cattle 


Occupations 


131 


brickmason  in  the  country  districts  is  from  eight  to  ten 
cents  a day,  and  he  boards  himself. 

The  making  of  pottery  is  an  important  industry. 
Water  is  brought  in  earthen  jars,  people  cook  in  them 
and  use  them  in  various  other  ways.  The  material  is 
coarse  and  the  construction  rude,  still  they  answer 
their  purpose.  These  craftsmen,  like  all  others,  sit 
on  their  heels  to  do  their  work.  A great  deal  of  this 
pottery  is  wasted,  and  caste  is  accountable  for  part 
of  it.  Many  of  the  pilgrims  buy  a little  half-cent  or 
quarter-cent  earthen  dish  to  cook  their  rice  in,  and 
after  dinner  either  throw  it  down  and  break  it,  or 
leave  it  by  the  tree  or  rest-house  where  they  were.  We 
might  think  that  the  next  man  who  came  along  and 
wanted  to  boil  his  rice  would  pick  up  one  of  the  dishes 
and  wash  it  and  use  it.  But  he  does  not.  He  doesn’t 
know  what  low-caste  man  may  have  used  it,  so  he 
proceeds  to  buy  one  for  himself.  In  this  way  millions 
of  earthen  jars  are  destroyed.  They  have  a custom 
also  of  breaking,  once  a year,  all  vessels  in  their  houses 
made  of  this  material.  Almost  any  day  you  may  see 
men  and  women  bringing  great  loads  of  earthen  jars 
to  market. 

Weaving  is  accomplished  by  means  of  the  rudest  kind 
of  tools,  and  is  all  done  by  hand.  I am  not  speak- 
ing of  cotton  and  jute  mills  established  by  English 
capital,  but  of  natives  as  they  work.  The  thread  is 
prepared  after  the  most  primitive  methods,  and  is 
then  stretched  under  a tree  the  length  which  the  piece 
of  cloth  is  to  be.  Under  this  tree  it  is  often  woven. 
The  natives  make  all  kinds  of  cloth  (chiefly  of  cotton), 


132 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


from  the  coarse  and  strong,  such  as  is  worn  by  the 
Santals,  to  the  fine  worn  by  the  higher-caste  women. 
Tussar-silk,  made  from  cocoons  found  in  the  jungles, 
is  one  of  the  industries.  How  they  can  make  such  fine 
fabrics  as  they  do  with  their  rude  tools  is  a mystery. 
In  the  vicinity  of  the  Himalaya  Mountains  a good 
deal  of  coarse  woolen  goods  is  made,  and  Cashmere 
is  noted  for  the  finest  shawls  in  the  world.  The  hand- 
looms  of  India  cannot  compete  with  the  steam  looms 
of  Manchester,  so  that  weaving  does  not  furnish  the 
occupation  for  the  people  which  it  once  did.  Many 
who  now  weave  their  own  cloth  buy  Manchester  yarn. 

A very  low-caste  people  are  the  shoemakers,  who  are 
also  the  tanners.  Animals  which  die  are  skinned  by 
the  sweepers,  and  their  skins  are  taken  to  the  shoe- 
makers. These  also  get  skins  from  the  Mohammedan 
butchers.  They  tan  them  by  making  them  into  a big 
bag,  and  filling  these  with  a liquid  made  from  barks  of 
different  kinds  steeped  in  water.  The  skins  in  this 
way  are  suspended  over  a large  earthen  vessel  into 
which  they  drip.  They  make  some  pretty  good  leather, 
but  it  has  the  peculiar  property  of  shrinking  rather 
than  stretching  with  use.  If  our  shoe  fits  us  nicely 
when  it  is  new,  we  may  be  sure  it  will  be  too  small  after 
a few  months.  If  we  wish  to  have  one  of  these  country 
shoemakers  make  us  a pair  of  shoes,  we  call  him  to  our 
house.  When  he  gets  ready  he  comes,  and  takes  for  a 
measure  a strip  of  paper.  He  cuts  this  off,  making  it 
the  length  of  our  foot.  Then  he  measures  the  instep 
with  the  same  piece  of  paper,  tearing  the  edge  to  make 
the  mark.  We  ask  him  when  he  will  have  the  shoes 


Occupations 


133 


done,  and  he  tells  us,  “ Day  after  to-morrow.”  He 
stands  around  as  if  he  were  not  quite  ready  to  go,  and 
we  ask  him  what  more  he  wants.  “ I want  a little 
money  for  expenses,”  he  says.  If  we  don’t  know  the 
custom  of  the  country,  we  perhaps  may  tell  him  that 
when  he  gets  his  work  done  we  will  pay  him ; but  if  we 
do  know  the  custom,  we  will  know  that  we  must  give 
him  something  in  advance  or  we  will  never  get  our 
work  done.  We  may  refuse  to  give  it  to  him,  and  he 
may  promise  to  do  the  work,  but  it  is  probable  that  he 
will  not  do  it.  If  we  do  give  him  a little  money  in 
advance,  he  does  the  work  when  he  gets  ready.  Only 
after  one  has  lived  in  India  a few  years  can  he  under- 
stand the  expression,  “ Lie  like  a shoemaker.”  Have 
plenty  of  patience  and  perseverance,  and  we  will  get 
our  shoes  after  a while. 

There  are  merchants  of  all  kinds.  If,  for  instance, 
you  should  go  down  the  streets  of  Balasore  or  Mid- 
napore,  you  would  see  a line  of  shops  on  either  side  of 
the  road.  These  are  all  small  and  but  one  story  high. 
Some  of  them  are  pucca  and  some  mud  houses.  The 
man  who  sells  goods  usually  sits  on  a grass  mat  on 
the  floor,  or  on  a large  low  table.  He  may  have  beside 
him  a large  cushion  on  which  to  recline.  If  he  can  get 
the  article  you  wish  without  getting  up,  he  will  do  so ; 
if  not,  he  will  get  up.  You  would  find  one  man  selling 
cloth  of  various  kinds;  another,  different  kinds  of  oils 
— as  kerosene  oil,  from  both  Russia  and  America,  cas- 
tor oil,  cocoanut  oil,  mustard  oil,  and  various  other 
kinds  of  a coarser  nature,  which  the  natives  eat  and 
which  they  also  use  to  rub  on  their  bodies  in  the  winter 


134 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


season  before  bathing.  This  man  would  also  have 
rosin,  gums,  and  paint.  The  next  man  perhaps  would 
sell  candies,  which  he  makes  on  the  spot  from  sugar, 
flour,  melted  butter,  and  sour  milk.  With  one  or 
more  of  these  four  articles,  and  a few  spices  in  differ- 
ent combinations  and  in  different  ways,  he  will  make 
a great  variety  of  sweets.  The  next  man  may  have  a 
shop  for  English  goods.  He  keeps  a little  of  almost 
everything,  even  though  his  shop  is  but  eight  feet  by 
ten.  We  may  go  and  inquire  for  something  which 
we  don't  expect  to  find  short  of  Calcutta,  and  as  likely 
as  not  he  will  find  the  very  thing  we  are  after  in  some 
dusty  corner.  The  next  man  has  grains  of  all  kinds — 
as  rice,  wheat,  and  dal  of  different  varieties.  The  peo- 
ple are  very  fond  of  parched  rice,  so  this  is  found  in 
many  shops.  They  make  it  by  putting  a certain  kind 
of  rice  in  an  earthen  jar,  building  a brisk  fire  under  it, 
and  stirring  it  with  a broom  splint  while  it  is  popping. 
Sometimes  they  put  molasses  with  it  and  roll  it  into 
balls.  It  is  very  palatable  when  fresh. 

There  are  persons  also  lounging  around  courthouses 
whose  only  occupation  is  giving  testimony  in  court. 
For  twenty-five  cents  you  can  hire  them  to  swear  to 
anything  you  desire.  In  the  census  returns  of  1890, 
a large  number  gave  this  as  their  only  occupation. 
Little  justice  is  found  in  the  courts;  for,  in  the  first 
place,  you  cannot  believe  the  testimony.  A magistrate 
in  Balasore  told  me  he  never  pretended  to  believe  the 
witnesses.  He  simply  listened  to  both  sides,  and  then 
made  up  his  mind  to  what  he  thought  might  be  prob- 
able. There  is  also  little  doubt  that  many  of  the  native 


Occupations 


135 


magistrates  will  accept  bribes  in  one  way  or  another. 
English  officials  do  their  best  to  prevent  bribery  and 
corruption,  but  the  tide  is  very  strong  in  the  other 
direction. 

The  boatmen  are  quite  a numerous  class  in  Bengal. 
Thousands  of  them  live  in  their  boats.  They  may  have 
some  other  place  they  call  home,  but  most  of  their  time 
is  spent  on  their  boats.  At  a point  above  the  Howrah 
Bridge,  a hundred  and  twenty  thousand  boats  pass  in 
a single  year.  They  handle  their  boats  very  skilful- 
ly, and  sometimes  recklessly.  I was  going  up  on  the 
steamship  Bassein  once,  and  as  we  neared  Calcutta  we 
saw  a native  rowboat  coming  toward  us  as  if  it  would 
pass  in  front  of  us.  I feared,  as  I saw  them  coming, 
that  they  had  mistaken  our  speed,  and  so  it  was,  for 
instead  of  passing  in  front  they  struck  our  side  wheel 
and  instantly  their  boat  was  in  splinters.  They  swim 
like  ducks,  and  no  one  was  lost.  I was  told  afterward 
by  the  captain  that  they  got  a good  sum  of  money  for 
damages.  Also  I was  told  that  it  is  not  an  uncommon 
occurrence.  When  a boat  is  about  worn  out,  they 
sometimes  manage  to  have  it  struck  by  a passing 
steamer.  Of  course  no  one  could  prove  that  it  was 
purposely  done.  While  we  find  no  native  sailors  who 
are  Hindus  on  English  ships,  we  find  plenty  of  Hindus 
on  their  own  boats.  Mohammedan  sailors  are  found 
in  large  numbers  on  European  ships.  They  are  treach- 
erous and  cowardly  in  a dangerous  storm,  and  cannot 
be  depended  on  in  an  emergency.  Though  they  are 
skilful  in  running  their  own  boats,  they  sometimes  give 
us  trouble  when  they  run  our  mission  boats  by  what 


136 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


we  used  to  think  was  their  stupidity.  Their  pretended 
stupidity  is  often  a deliberate  plan  to  secure  some  ad- 
vantage to  themselves. 

In  Orissa  there  are  many  tidal  rivers,  and  the  coast 
canal  crosses  all  these.  At  all  these  river  crossings 
there  are  locks,  which  must  be  entered  while  there  is 
plenty  of  water  in  the  river.  Sometimes  in  crossing 
they  would  delay  the  boat  through  various  pretexts, 
until  they  were  just  too  late  to  enter  the  lock  on  the 
opposite  side.  This  would  secure  a rest  to  them  until 
the  next  tide  came  in.  You  might  be  greatly  incon- 
venienced by  the  delay,  but  it  mattered  little  to  them. 
Here,  again,  you  have  a chance  to  exercise  the  grace  of 
patience. 

We  must  not  overlook  the  mahajan.  The  word 
literally  means  “ great  man,”  and  so  he  is.  He  is  the 
money-lender.  This  may  be  his  sole  occupation,  or  he 
may  do  this  in  connection  with  some  other  business. 
Sometimes  goldsmiths  are  money-lenders.  The  regu- 
lar rate  of  interest  among  the  natives  is  two  pice  on 
a rupee  per  month.  As  there  are  sixty-four  pice  in  a 
rupee,  two  pice  a month  would  be  one-thirty-second 
of  the  principal  per  month,  or  nearly  forty  per  cent 
per  year.  It  is  little  wonder  that  when  a poor  man  gets 
into  the  hands  of  a money-lender  he  is  often  there  for 
life,  and  sometimes  becomes  not  much  less  than  a slave 
to  him.  The  note  given  is  equal  to  a chattel  mortgage, 
and  will  take  the  last  thing  a man  has  if  the  holder  sees 
fit  to  crowd  him.  Custom  is  an  iron  law  in  India,  and 
the  custom  is  to  spend  large  sums  on  the  marriage  of  a 
daughter.  On  such  occasions  the  money-lender  is 


Occupations 


137 


often  called  upon.  This  is  one  of  the  ways  to  account 
for  the  poverty  of  the  people. 

No  one  could  live  opposite  a police  headquarters, 
as  we  did  for  nine  years,  without  realizing  that  police- 
men are  a factor  not  to  be  overlooked  in  speaking  of 
occupations.  The  lowest  grade  of  these  is  the  chauke- 
dar,  or  village  watchman.  These  men  are  armed  with 
a tough  bamboo  pole  six  feet  long,  on  the  end  of  which 
is  a spear.  They  go  around  the  village  at  night  and 
call  out  now  and  again  at  the  top  of  their  voice.  I have 
often  told  them  that  they  call  out  so  as  to  give  the  thief 
a good  chance  to  get  away.  So  far  as  being  a pro- 
tection against  thieves  is  concerned,  in  our  part  of  the 
country  they  are  absolutely  worthless.  In  northern 
India,  Europeans  employ  one  of  the  thief  caste  as  a 
watchman,  and  then  they  are  safe  though  the  watch- 
man sleep  all  night.  In  this  they  show  a good  deal  of 
shrewdness  and  policy. 

The  next  above  the  chaukedar  is  the  Bengal  police. 
These  men  enlist  as  persons  do  in  the  army,  and  have 
regular  military  drill.  They  are  distinguished  by  their 
blue  drill  pantaloons,  shirt,  and  headcloth.  I would 
not  depreciate  any  part  of  the  government  machinery 
of  any  worth,  but  I have  had  pretty  good  chances  for 
knowing,  and  I have  no  hesitation  in  saying  that  they 
are  about  as  big  a set  of  rascals  as  could  well  be  found. 
Possibly  they  help  preserve  the  peace,  but  I doubt  it. 
On  the  other  hand,  they  bring  many  innocent  people 
into  the  law  courts.  They  are  supposed  to  have  crimi- 
nal cases  to  report  frequently,  but  if  these  cases  do  not 
come  under  their  observation  they  don’t  have  much 


138 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


trouble  in  getting  up  one.  But  they  are  more  noted 
for  hushing  up  those  which  ought  to  come  to  the  sur- 
face than  for  trumping  up  cases.  The  palms  of  the 
policeman's  hands  itch  for  coin,  which  will  work 
wonders  for  the  guilty  man,  and  withholding  this  no 
one  need  expect  much  help. 

Let  me  give  a personal  experience  to  illustrate  this: 
I took  with  me  to  India  a very  nice,  valuable  watch, 
which  came  to  me  from  a dear  younger  brother,  whom 
death  had  taken  from  us.  I had  a little  pocket  on  the 
wall  near  the  head  of  the  bed  where  I hung  my  watch 
at  night.  It  often  happened  that  I left  it  there  through 
the  day  also.  One  day  I went  to  get  it  and  it  was  not 
there.  People  said,  “ Tell  the  police,”  and  so  I did. 
They  at  once  came  to  the  house.  It  was  not  the  ordi- 
nary policeman  in  a blue  drill  suit,  but  a man  a grade 
or  two  higher,  having  on  white  drill  with  two  or  three 
red  stripes  across  his  sleeve,  a white  headcloth  fringed 
with  red,  and  around  him  a leathern  belt  with  a brass 
buckle.  Along  with  this  head  man  came  a writer  and 
an  ordinary  policeman  in  blue.  This  latter  had  to 
come  to  carry  the  ink  bottle  and  a little  roll  of  brown 
paper,  on  which  were  to  be  noted  some  of  the  impor- 
tant things  necessary  to  be  known  in  the  case : First, 
“ Which  door  would  the  thief  be  likely  to  enter?  ” As 
there  were  seven  to  the  room,  it  is  probable  he  had 
some  trouble  in  deciding,  but  at  last  the  writer  was 
told  what  to  record  in  this  connection.  Then,  “ How 
far  did  the  pocket  hang  from  the  bed  ? ” The  distance 
was  roughly  estimated  and  recorded.  Then  the  color 
of  the  pocket  must  be  carefully  noted.  This  was  very 


Occupations 


139 


important.  It  was  not  only  red  like  the  fringe  of  his 
headcloth,  but  a much  brighter  red.  Several  other 
things  of  equal  importance  were  observed  and  care- 
fully noted.  With  a profound  bow  he  departed,  care- 
fully to  consider  the  records  he  had  ordered  made, 
with  a promise  to  call  again  the  next  day. 

The  next  day  he  came  to  reassure  himself  that  his 
observations  of  the  previous  day  were  correct.  Find- 
ing he  had  made  no  mistake,  he  again  withdrew  with 
a promise  to  call  again  soon.  The  next  day  he  came 
to  announce  his  conclusions;  namely,  that  some  one 
acquainted  with  the  premises,  and  some  one  with  a 
knowledge  of  the  fact  that  I had  a watch,  had  probably 
stolen  it.  This  was  a long  step  in  the  right  direction. 
The  next  conclusion  was  that  no  one  would  be  more 
likely  to  have  this  knowledge  than  some  of  the  serv- 
ants, and  therefore  some  of  them  had  it.  If  they  had 
it,  we  would  better  search  their  houses  for  it,  which  he 
proceeded  to  do,  but  found  no  watch.  I gave  him  no 
fee,  and  no  more  effort  was  made  to  find  my  watch  by 
the  police.  The  native  Christians,  with  myself,  decided 
who  the  guilty  man  was,  and  a month  afterward  two 
of  our  native  preachers  found  him  and  recovered  my 
watch. 

These  men  walk  about  with  their  clubs  hanging  by 
their  side,  and  strike  terror  into  the  hearts  of  many  of 
the  poor,  ignorant  people.  They  often  buy  things  of 
the  farmers  at  their  own  price,  and  vague  rumors  are 
sometimes  heard  that  often  they  never  pay  for  what 
they  get.  This  is  without  doubt  true.  Perhaps,  on  the 
whole,  it  is  better  to  keep  them  as  policemen  than  to 


NO 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


discharge  them,  and  let  such  a bad  class  loose  on  so- 
ciety. 

The  garrie  wallah,  or  cartman,  must  receive  a little 
attention.  His  cart  is  made  of  two  large  wheels,  five 
feet  in  diameter,  a wooden  axle,  two  large  poles  in  the 
shape  of  a letter  V (only  with  a much  more  acute 
angle),  with  the  point  eight  feet  in  front  of  the  axle, 
and  the  two  ends  running  back  of  the  axle  eight  feet. 
At  the  point  the  yoke  is  tied  with  a strong  rope,  and 
over  the  axle  is  the  cover.  This  is  made  by  bending 
green  bamboo  strips,  tying  other  strips  across  them, 
and  spreading  palm  leaves  over  the  whole.  This 
covering  makes  a good  protection  from  rain  and  sun. 
The  yoke  is  simply  a straight  pole  with  a loose  pin 
in  either  end,  and  the  bullocks  are  generally  small  cat- 
tle, with  a hump  on  their  necks  just  in  front  of  the 
shoulder  blade.  In  northern  and  southern  India  the 
cattle  have  long  ears,  and  are  much  larger  than  in 
Bengal.  The  hump  catches  the  yoke  as  soon  as  they 
begin  to  draw.  If  the  cartman  is  very  fond  of  his  bul- 
locks, he  will  have  them  tattooed  in  many  places  on 
their  bodies  with  different  figures.  This  is  done  by 
burning  them  with  a red-hot  iron.  If  he  is  able,  he 
will  have  a string  of  cowries  1 around  the  base  of  their 
horns,  and  a sweet-sounding  bell  on  the  neck  of  each. 

A hollow  bamboo,  a foot  long,  is  fastened  to  the 
cover  to  hold  oil  for  greasing  his  cart  and  his  bullocks’ 
horns,  while  on  the  top  of  the  cover  may  be  seen  his 
box  and  earthen  jar  for  cooking  and  feeding  purposes. 
The  driver  loads  his  cart  so  as  to  allow  a heavy 


1 A small  shell  used  as  money. 


Occupations 


141 


portion  to  rest  on  the  necks  of  his  bullocks,  and  when 
ready  to  start  he  sits  astride  the  V-shaped  tongue, 
sticks  his  toes  into  the  belly  of  each  bullock,  gives  them 
a blow  with  his  club  of  a whip,  seizes  each  one  by  the 
root  of  the  tail  with  his  thumb  and  finger,  and  shouts 
to  them.  If  this  will  not  start  them  nothing  will. 
While  on  the  road  the  cartmen  often  cook,  feed  their 
bullocks,  and  eat  under  the  shade  of  a tree,  and  sleep 
under  or  in  their  carts.  All  teaming  is  done  by  the 
faithful  bullocks.  Horses  draw  only  people. 

There  is  also  quite  an  array  of  domestics  connected 
with  every  well-to-do  household.  The  native  gentle- 
men are  very  fond  of  making  a display  of  these.  In 
the  eyes  of  their  fellow-countrymen  their  wealth  is 
determined  by  the  number  of  people  they  can  have 
around  their  houses.  You  call  on  a native  gentleman, 
and  you  will  be  surprised  to  see  the  number  of  serv- 
ants that  will  make  their  appearance  at  one  time  or 
another.  I never  could  tell  what  they  all  did.  English 
officials  have  a good  many,  but  missionaries  reduce 
their  staff  to  the  lowest  number  possible. 

But  before  I speak  of  the  duties  of  these  domestics, 
let  me  say  a word  as  to  their  necessity.  The  question 
is  asked,  “ Why  do  missionaries  keep  servants?  Why 
do  they  so  soon  forget  their  simple  habits  of  living 
after  they  get  to  India  ? 

I may  as  well  say  a few  words  now  as  at  any  time 
on  this  subject.  In  the  first  place,  missionaries  have 
been,  as  a rule,  people  who  in  the  home  land  had  sim- 
ple habits.  In  the  next  place,  they  are,  as  a rule,  in- 
telligent and  conscientious  people.  These  two  facts 


142 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


ought  to  be  a guarantee  that  they  would  not  unneces- 
sarily indulge  luxurious  habits.  They  keep  servants 
because  they  are  a necessity.  They  pay  for  them  from 
their  own  pocketbooks,  so  of  course  would  not  keep 
more  than  were  needed.  The  country  is  very  hot,  so 
that  we  cannot  put  forth  more  physical  effort  than  is 
necessary  to  do  what  is  needed  in  connection  with  our 
missionary  work.  If  we  did  our  own  work,  it  would 
be  at  the  expense  of  the  cause  we  were  sent  to  serve. 
I contend  that  it  is  no  more  right  for  our  wives  to 
neglect  their  mission  work  for  their  housework,  than 
it  would  be  for  a school-teacher  in  this  country  to  be 
making  her  dresses  and  aprons  during  the  hours  of 
teaching.  The  missionary’s  wife  is  paid  to  do  mission 
work,  as  a teacher  is  paid  to  teach  the  school.  It  is 
true  there  are  some  duties  she  cannot  relegate  to  serv- 
ants, but  she  can  have  them  wash  her  clothes,  and 
make  them,  and  do  many  other  things  which  she  does 
herself  in  America. 

“If  necessary  to  have  some,  why  have  so  many?” 
For  the  same  reason  thht  if  we  have  one  we  must  have 
a number.  With  their  caste  ideas  one  will  not  do  the 
work  which  belongs  to  another.  A cook  will  not  sweep, 
and  a gardener  cannot  cook,  and  a tailor  cannot  wash 
clothes.  Members  of  one  class  cannot  do  the  work 
of  another,  and  would  not  if  they  could.  We  must, 
therefore,  have  separate  people  to  do  these  various 
kinds  of  work.  We  must  bear  in  mind  that  they  work 
very  cheaply  and  board  themselves.  Besides  all  this, 
there  are  so  many  people  who  are  struggling  for  an 
existence,  and  who  can  hardly  keep  their  children  from 


Occupations 


143 


starving,  that  from  sheer  pity  we  would  employ  them 
as  much  as  we  possibly  could.  Many  of  them  are  good 
and  true,  and  one  becomes  quite  attached  to  them. 
They  are  also  at  times  a great  trial. 

Having  said  so  much  as  an  explanation  for  their 
necessity,  let  us  look  at  their  work.  Let  us  begin  withr 
the  bearer.  This  man  is  supposed  to  look  after  the 
children  and  keep  them  from  running  into  the  sun, 
dust  the  furniture,  keep  the  mould  off  our  books  and 
shoes  during  the  rains,  fill  the  lamps,  buy  material  for 
annual  repairs,  look  after  these  repairs,  and  do  many 
kinds  of  work  in  that  line,  so  that  the  man  of  the 
house  may  not  be  tried  every  hour  in  the  day  with  these 
things.  As  natives  go,  he  is  a pretty  faithful  man, 
but  you  have  some  trials  with  him.  When  he  cleans 
the  books  he  may  put  them  in  wrong  end  up,  and  in 
his  efforts  to  keep  others  from  cheating  you  he  is  apt 
to  do  it  himself.  Then  you  are  never  quite  sure  about 
the  children.  We  may  find  one  of  them  out  in  the 
sun  with  no  hat  on,  which  never  should  be  allowed.  If 
we  chide  the  bearer,  he  will  tell  us  the  child  ran  out 
itself,  and  would  go,  and  what  could  he  do?  So, 
while  the  bearer  looks  after  things  in  general,  we  must 
look  after  him  in  particular. 

The  butcher  comes.  He  is  a Mohammedan,  of 
course,  and  has  with  him  a small  boy  who  carries,  on 
a flat,  dirty  tray,  made  of  split  bamboos,  some  meat. 
He  plants  himself  in  the  back  door  so  as  to  attract  our 
attention,  and  when  he  gets  our  eye,  makes  a low 
salaam  (bow).  We  go  to  him  to  see  what  he  has, 
and  he  tells  us  it  is  a nice  piece  of  lamb,  and  he  picks 

K 


144 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


it  up  and  turns  it  over,  and  points  out  the  fat,  if  he  can 
find  any,  and  assures  us  that  it  is  young  and  tender. 
We  tell  him  we  fear  it  is  not  lamb  but  goat.  He  em- 
phatically declares  it  is  lamb,  and  asks  if  we  ever  saw 
wool  growing  from  a goat’s  leg,  and  then  points  tri- 
umphantly to  the  wool  near  the  foot,  which  he  did 
not  take  off.  We  are  sure  he  is  right,  and  buy  his 
lamb.  Don’t  be  at  all  surprised  to  find  that  the  wool 
was  carefully  sewed  on  a goat’s  leg,  by  which  process 
goat  is  readily  turned  into  lamb. 

Here  is  the  gardener.  We  must  have  a little  house 
built  in  the  garden  for  him.  It  need  not  be  large — 
ten  feet  square  will  do,  but  he  must  have  it  in  order 
to  keep  people  from  stealing  the  fruit  and  vegetables. 
He  watches  the  fruit  as  it  ripens,  and  plucks  it  before 
the  crows,  or  monkeys,  or  bad  boys  do.  He  is  sup- 
posed to  board  himself,  but  intends  to  get  all  the  fruit 
and  vegetables  he  needs  out  of  the  garden.  Each 
morning  he  brings  in  the  fruit  and  vegetables,  taste- 
fully arranged  on  a flat  woven  bamboo  tray.  He  is 
a gardener  by  caste,  and  rarely  does  anything  else 
but  work  in  fruits,  vegetables,  or  grains. 

But  of  all  servants  the  cook,  next  to  the  sweeper,  is 
the  most  important.  The  cook-house  is  at  some  dis- 
tance from  the  house,  and  no  European  woman  could 
walk  back  and  forth  between  this  and  the  house  very 
much  in  the  hot  sun.  The  cook  is,  therefore,  left  a 
good  deal  to  himself.  This  suits  him  well,  for  he  can 
then  do  about  as  he  likes.  There  is  in  the  house  a sort 
of  pantry,  in  which  all  the  provisions  are  kept  under 
lock  and  key.  The  lady  of  the  house  makes  up  her  mind 


Occupations 


145 


what  she  wants  for  the  different  meals  of  the  day,  and 
gives  her  orders  to  the  cook  early  in  the  morning.  He 
comes  to  the  pantry  with  his  dishes  and  she  comes  with 
her  keys.  He  gets  rice,  dal,  onions,  sugar,  cracked 
wheat,  potatoes,  if  there  are  any,  salt,  and  ghee.  He 
sometimes  says  he  has  not  enough  salt  or  sugar  or 
ghee.  She  may  give  him  more,  or  may  say,  “ That  is 
surely  enough  for  one  day.”  He  says  nothing,  of 
course,  but  takes  his  things  and  goes.  At  dinner  you 
find  that  things  which  required  salt  are  too  fresh,  or 
things  which  required  sugar  are  not  sweet  enough,  and 
the  ghee  is  nearly  minus  in  some  things.  You  may 
suggest  to  the  cook  that  the  dinner  is  tasteless.  He 
tells  you  very  meekly  that  he  is  very  sorry,  but  it  is 
impossible  for  him  to  make  things  sweet  without  sugar. 
The  next  time  you  let  him  take  about  what  salt,  sugar, 
and  ghee  he  asks  for.  You  see  the  man  has  a family 
at  home,  and  they  like  salt  in  their  rice  and  ghee  in 
their  dal.  You  know  that  what  of  these  your  dinner 
lacks  has  gone  into  his,  but  you  are  helpless,  and  must 
make  the  best  of  the  situation.  One  may  say,  “ Why 
not  dismiss  him  when  you  know  he  does  such  things, 
and  get  another  ? ” The  fact  is,  we  would  not  better 
our  condition  if  we  did.  The  man  has  been  with  us  a 
number  of  years,  so  that  he  and  his  family  are  well 
fed.  The  chances  are  the  new  man  and  his  family 
would  be  lean  and  poor.  You  can  see  what  would  fol- 
low. 

The  cook  comes  very  early  to  the  house  to  pre- 
pare the  morning  meal.  This  is  very  simple.  It  may 
be  a piece  of  toast,  a boiled  egg,  and  a cup  of  tea. 


146 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


He  churns  our  butter  in  a pickle  bottle  by  shaking  it 
vigorously.  The  butcher  takes  the  leg  of  mutton  we 
bought  to  the  cook,  and  it  was  he  who  showed  you  the 
piece  of  lambskin  which  was  sewed  on  the  leg  of  the 
goat.  He  may  show  it  or  he  may  not.  That  will  de- 
pend entirely  on  whether  it  will  pay  him  to  do  so.  We 
must  remember  that  there  is  a good  deal  of  power  in 
the  hands  of  the  cook.  Let  us  walk  out  quietly  to  the 
cook-house,  and  put  our  ear  to  a crack  in  the  door 
and  listen.  If  we  listen  sharply,  we  may  hear  some- 
thing like  this : 

Cook.  “ How  much  did  the  mem-sahib  give  for  this 
mutton?  ” 

Butcher.  “ One  rupee.” 

Cook.  “ This  is  not  mutton,  it  is  goat.” 

Butcher.  “ You  don’t  know  mutton  from  goat. 
That  is  a sheep.” 

Cook.  “ Do  your  sheep  fasten  the  wool  on  their 
legs  with  a thread  ? ” The  butcher  sees  he  is  caught, 
and  smiles,  and  the  cook  says,  “ I want  more  dusturi.”  2 
Butcher.  “ I am  giving  you  now  two  pice  on  the 
rupee,  and  that  is  the  regular  custom.” 

Cook.  “ A man  who  makes  his  money  as  you  do, 
by  selling  goat’s  meat  for  mutton,  can  give  three  pice 
on  the  rupee.”  The  butcher  refuses,  a quarrel  ensues, 
and  the  cook,  always  greatly  interested  in  our  welfare, 
brings  the  leg  to  us,  shows  the  trick,  and  tells  us  to 
dismiss  this  man  and  get  an  honest  butcher. 

* Dusturi  is  the  money  paid  to  servants  by  any  person  who  sells  goods  of  any 
kind  to  Europeans  or  wealthy  natives.  It  is  one  thirty-second  of  the  value  of  the 
article.  The  cook  buys  for  the  table,  and  gets  his  dusturi,  the  hostler  for  the  horses, 
and  gets  his,  etc.  This  all  comes  out  of  the  purchaser. 


Occupations 


147 


Almost  all  the  natives  do  their  cutting  of  meats  and 
vegetables  by  means  of  a knife  shaped  something  like 
a sickle.  One  end  of  this  is  fastened  into  a board  fifteen 
inches  long  and  four  inches  wide,  and  so  fixed  that  the 
edge  is  toward  them.  When  they  want  to  cut  any- 
thing for  cooking  they  squat  on  the  floor,  put  one  foot 
on  the  board  to  hold  it  solid,  and  proceed  to  cut.  This 
kind  of  knife  is  found  in  every  native  house.  The  cook 
is  not  encumbered  with  many  garments  while  at  his 
work.  Three  yards  of  factory  cotton  tied  around  his 
loins  will  answer.  When  we  see  him  come  into  the 
dining-room  with  a paper  in  his  hand  we  know  he  is 
after  money,  and  wants  to  render  his  account.  We  are 
surprised  that  all  the  money  we  gave  him  a few  days 
ago  is  gone.  But  there  it  is  in  black  and  white : Rice, 
so  much ; dal,  so  much ; and  so  on  to  the  end  of  the  list. 
Many  of  the  smaller  things  cost  but  one  quarter  of  a 
cent,  but  the  whole  takes  all  the  money  and  leaves  us  a 
little  in  his  debt.  We  know  he  has  cheated  us,  and  we 
think  perhaps  that  we  will  do  our  own  buying.  The 
next  day  we  go  to  the  bazaar  for  this  purpose,  but  the 
men  in  the  bazaar  cheat  us  so  much  worse  than  our 
cook  did  that  we  are  quite  willing  for  him  to  continue. 
We  had  a Mohammedan  cook  whose  name  was  Jesso. 
Chicken  is  the  principal  meat,  and  Jesso  bought  the 
chickens.  One  day  my  wife,  who  was  fond  of  the  leg, 
after  eating  one  looked  for  the  other.  It  was  not  to 
be  found.  She  called  the  cook  and  inquired  into  the 
matter.  Jesso  said,  “ Chickens  are  very  scarce  these 
days,  and  this  one  with  one  leg  is  all  I could  find  in 
the  market.” 


148 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


There  is  a small  piece  of  cloth  which  may  be  said 
to  be  the  badge  of  the  cook.  It  is  a yard  long  and  half 
a yard  wide,  and  he  usually  carries  it  on  his  naked 
shoulder.  It  answers  a great  variety  of  purposes, 
among  which  is  straining  milk.  This  is  not  by  order 
or  consent  of  the  lady  of  the  house,  but  the  way  he  does 
when  alone  and  unmolested.  They  never  want  to  see 
any  milk  wasted,  so  insist  on  squeezing  out  with  their 
thumb  and  finger  the  last  drop.  We  may  have  told 
him  a score  of  times  that  we  would  much  prefer  a few 
drops  less  milk  and  a little  less  dirt,  but  the  next  time 
he  strains  the  milk  it  is  the  same  thing. 

As  showing  another  use  to  which  this  piece  of  cloth 
may  be  put,  let  me  tell  a little  incident  which  was  told 
us  at  the  tea-table  the  day  it  occurred.  The  victim 
was  Mrs.  Boyer,  our  neighbor  just  across  the  street. 
She  was  feeling  a little  languid  so  asked  the  cook  to 
make  her  a cup  of  coffee,  which  he  proceeded  to  do.  It 
was  so  very  nice  that  she  asked  for  a second  cup.  The 
cook  told  her  he  was  sorry  that  he  could  not  make 
her  any  more,  for  the  reason  that  he  had  no  more  milk. 
She  said,  “ I thought  you  had  a quart  of  milk,”  and  the 
cook  replied,  “ So  I had,  mem-sahib,  but  the  boy  spilt 
it  on  the  cook-house  floor,  and  all  I could  sop  up  I put 
in  your  other  cup  of  coffee.”  We  can’t  say  that  these 
cooks  are  really  dirty  men,  but  they  do  things  differ- 
ently than  we  do  in  America.  But  they  are  faithful  in 
many  respects,  and  in  spite  of  all  their  faults  we  like 
them. 

House  cannot  be  kept  without  the  dirze.  This  is  the 
man  who  sews.  He  comes  in  the  morning  at  nine 


Washermen  in  the  foreground ; a water- 
carrier  on  the  left 


One  way  of  crossing  rivers,  Bengal 


Occupations 


149 


o’clock,  and  stays  until  five.  He  never  wears  his  shoes 
inside  the  house,  and  never  takes  off  his  cap.  He  has 
a bit  of  grass  matting,  three  feet  by  six  feet,  which  he 
takes  from  the  corner  of  the  room  and  unrolls.  Lei- 
surely he  proceeds  to  sit  down  with  his  legs  crossed 
under  him.  He  has  a little  box  which  he  unlocks,  and 
takes  from  it  his  scissors,  needles,  pins,  cloth,  etc.  He 
is  now  ready  for  operation.  He  is  a pretty  good  imita- 
tor, and  insists  that  he  can  make  anything  you  want  if 
you  will  give  him  a pattern.  Sometimes  he  does  very 
well,  and  sometimes  he  spoils  the  garment.  He  never 
will  acknowledge  that  a garment  is  spoiled,  and  insists 
that  a little  alteration  would  make  it  all  right.  He  is 
very  fond  of  his  midday  nap,  and  we  shall  be  sure  to 
find  him  some  hour  of  the  day  fast  asleep.  The  wife 
can’t  sit  over  him  all  the  time.  If  she  could  she  might 
as  well  do  the  work.  He  generally  is  carrying  on  a lit- 
tle business  by  himself  at  home,  so  a yard  or  two  of 
print  seldom  comes  amiss.  Even  thread  and  needles 
and  pins  can  be  used.  These  he  can  quietly  slip  in  and 
under  his  garments  at  convenient  times.  If  we  think 
needles  and  thread  go  too  fast,  he  tells  us  needles  are 
poor,  and  they  don’t  put  as  much  thread  on  a spool  as 
they  used  to.  We  learn  what  Paul  meant  when  he  said, 
Take  “ joyfully  the  spoiling  of  your  goods.” 

Every  Monday  morning  the  washerman  comes. 
The  housewife  has  a book  to  keep  her  accounts  with 
him,  which  she  brings  out  while  he  proceeds  to  count 
the  soiled  clothes.  “ One,  two,  three,  four — four 
sheets.”  This  is  marked  down.  Then  towels  are 
counted.  It  may  be  at  this  time  some  one  asks  for  the 


150 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


mem-sahib,  and  her  attention  is  taken  away  for  the 
moment.  This  is  his  opportunity  to  put  in  an  extra 
garment.  If  he  is  caught  he  says  he  made  a mistake  in 
the  count,  but  if  not  he  is  a garment  ahead,  for  he 
brings  back  only  the  number  marked.  After  all  are 
counted  he  rolls  them  up  in  a big  sheet,  puts  them  upon 
his  head,  and  carries  them  to  the  tank,  or  river,  where 
they  are  pounded  over  stones,  or  poles,  or  slabs,  and 
boiled  in  a coarse  soap  with  water  until  they  are  clean. 
In  this  process  buttons  are  torn  off  and  the  color  is 
taken  out  of  prints  and  calicoes.  If  there  are  some 
good  pearl  buttons  on  the  garments  he  may  cut  some  of 
them  off,  then  declare  they  were  lost  in  the  washing. 
They  are  again  counted  and  checked  off  when  he 
brings  them  back,  and  if  they  tally,  all  right,  but  if  not 
he  agrees  to  make  them  right.  Half  of  them  are  now 
made  over  to  the  dirze  to  mend  tears  and  sew  on  but- 
tons, and  the  rest  are  put  away. 

You  must  have  a man  who  is  called  a syce  to  at- 
tend your  horse.  There  are  many  reasons  for  this.  In 
the  first  place,  the  horses  are  generally  so  vicious  that, 
being  used  to  the  natives,  a white  man  could  not  har- 
ness or  saddle  them.  In  the  next  place,  there  are  no 
hitching-posts,  and  if  there  were  we  would  not  dare 
hitch  our  horse,  for  whatever  was  movable  might  be 
taken  before  we  got  back  to  our  carriage.  Again,  we 
cannot  afford  the  time  to  attend  to  our  horse  when  we 
can  hire  it  done  for  five  cents  a day,  and  the  man  of 
course  boards  himself,  as  do  all  the  rest  of  the  servants. 
Each  day  the  man  has  to  go  and  find  grass  where  he 
can ; and  all  through  the  dry  season  with  a sort  of  spud 


Occupations 


151 


he  digs  it  up  by  the  roots.  This  is  washed  in  the  tank, 
or  river,  and  brought  home.  The  horse  also  eats  dan- 
nah,  the  grain  from  which  dal  is  made.  The  syce  and 
his  family  eat  dal,  and  could  easily  eat  the  horse’s  share, 
so  we  must  have  the  horse  brought  to  the  house  and  see 
him  fed.  This  is  not  always  possible  for  us  to  do,  and 
therefore  the  man  often  gets  some  of  the  food  the  horse 
should  have.  But  when  we  think  that  the  man  is  really 
hungry  enough  to  eat  raw  peas,  we  can  hardly  be- 
grudge him  the  little  he  may  steal. 

In  giving  an  account  of  the  occupations,  we  must  not 
overlook  the  punka  wallah,  for  he  is  necessary  to  the 
very  existence  of  the  European  in  India.  A punka  is 
a contrivance  for  keeping  the  air  in  motion  in  a room. 
This  is  made  by  taking  a pole,  say  five  inches  in  diame- 
ter, and  anywhere  from  ten  to  twenty  feet  long,  and 
suspending  it  from  the  ceiling  by  means  of  hooks  and 
ropes.  It  hangs  down  four  or  five  feet  from  the  ceil- 
ing, and  is  swung  back  and  forth  by  means  of  a man 
pulling  a rope  which  is  attached  to  it.  To  the  pole 
is  tacked  a heavy  frill  about  eighteen  inches  wide,  and 
it  is  this  which  keeps  the  air  in  motion  as  the  punka 
swings  back  and  forth.  This  man  is  the  punka  wallah. 

I fancy  I hear  some  one  say,  “ Do  you  have  some  one 
to  fan  you?”  Truth  compels  me  to  answer  yes  to 
that  question.  This  is  one  of  the  “ luxuries  ” of  the 
missionaries’  life  that  we  sometimes  hear  about.  I 
have  told  you  something  of  the  climate,  and  the  work 
of  the  missionary  is  spoken  of  further  on.  But  we 
will  have  to  emphasize  one  or  two  things  before  you 
will  see  the  necessity  of  a punka  wallah.  When  the 


152 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


wind  gets  in  the  south  the  temperature  of  the  atmos- 
phere rapidly  changes,  so  that  by  April  we  must  close 
our  doors  by  nine  o’clock,  and  sometimes  earlier,  to 
keep  out  the  outside  wind,  which  feels  at  times  like  the 
air  from  an  oven.  You  may  fancy  yourself  shut  up  in 
a room  where  the  thermometer  will  be  from  90°  to 
ioo°,  and  not  the  slightest  motion  in  the  air.  It  is 
true  we  are  not  all  in  our  houses  by  this  time  in  the 
morning.  Those  who  have  gone  out  to  the  zenanas,  or 
the  villages,  or  schools,  do  not  get  in  before  ten 
o'clock ; but  some  members  of  the  household  are  in  the 
house  and  the  punka  must  go.  We  dress  thinly,  and 
yet  if  we  get  out  of  a room  where  the  punka  is,  in  a 
very  few  moments  the  perspiration  will  begin  to  ooze 
from  every  pore  in  the  skin. 

English  officers,  whose  salaries  are  large,  start  their 
punkas  in  a number  of  rooms,  and  keep  them  going 
night  and  day  for  seven  or  eight  months.  Missionaries, 
whose  salaries  will  not  admit  of  this,  economize  their 
punka  pulling  as  much  as  possible.  But  punkas  we 
must  have  to  some  extent  if  we  are  to  live  and  work 
at  all.  It  often  happens  during  the  rainy  season  that 
not  a breath  of  air  is  stirring  night  or  day.  At  such 
times  as  this  we  must  have  punkas  at  night  also.  The 
punka  wallah  is  not  an  unalloyed  blessing.  We  often 
have  such  a trial  with  him  that  we  think  we  will  get 
along  without  him,  but  a day  of  such  an  experience 
causes  us  to  decide  to  choose  the  least  of  two  evils. 

Let  me  try  to  take  the  reader  through  one  night’s 
experience.  We  retire  at  ten  o’clock,  when  our  night 
men  are  supposed  to  be  on  hand.  They  are  probably 


Occupations 


153 


there,  though  they  may  be  late.  We  lie  down  with  our 
thin  night  suit  on,  and  the  punka  starts.  We  are  com- 
paratively comfortable,  though  io°  cooler  would  suit 
us  much  better,  and  we  go  to  sleep.  By  and  by  we 
awake  with  a feeling  of  suffocation,  and  we  find  our 
clothes  wet  with  sweat  and  the  punka  standing  still. 
Then  we  call  out,  “ Punka  tannow ! ” which  is  an 
order  to  pull  the  punka.  It  may  move,  and  it  may  not. 
If  it  does  not,  we  get  up  and  take  hold  of  the  rope  and 
give  it  a pull.  Our  man  who  is  pulling  is  off  in  another 
part  of  the  house,  or  out  on  the  veranda,  but  even  in 
his  sleep  he  holds  on  to  the  rope,  so  our  pull  at  his 
rope  awakens  him.  He  suddenly  comes  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  he  has  been  sleeping,  and  begins  to  pull  most 
vigorously.  It  may  be  he  pulls  so  hard  to  convince  us 
that  he  has  been  wide  awake  all  the  time.  At  all 
events,  he  now  pulls  so  hard  that  the  breeze  on  our 
damp  night  clothes  makes  us  feel  chilly,  and  we  must 
call  out  to  him  to  pull  more  slowly.  This  he  is  quite 
willing  to  do,  and  so  it  swings  more  slowly  and  keeps 
on  growing  slower  and  slower,  until  finally  it  stops 
again.  Then  we  know  our  man  has  again  gone  to 
sleep.  We  again  go  through  the  process  of  awakening 
him,  and  again  our  punka  is  pulled  spasmodically.  We 
keep  on  this  way  for  half  an  hour,  and  then  go  out 
where  the  man  is  and  convince  him  that  he  has  been 
sleeping,  and  that  he  must  wake  up  thoroughly  and 
keep  awake.  It  may  be  we  tell  him  if  he  can’t  do  better 
we  must  get  some  one  else.  Now  he  is  thoroughly 
aroused  and  pulls  steadily,  and  we  retire  and  go  to 
sleep  again,  only  to  repeat  the  experience  an  hour  or 


154 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


two  hence.  We  get  up  in  the  morning  feeling  that 
we  have  not  slept  more  than  half  the  night,  and  wish 
that  we  could  just  for  one  night  lie  down  on  a bed  and 
pull  a blanket  over  us,  and  sleep  without  the  “ luxury  ” 
of  a punka  wallah. 

There  is  no  class  of  people  in  all  India  which  is  so 
absolutely  essential  as  the  sweepers.  If  they  knew  their 
power  and  would  combine,  they  would  command  any 
kind  of  a salary,  for  no  other  caste  would  under  any 
circumstances  do  their  work.  Their  duties  are  to 
sweep  the  house  and  yard  and  attend  to  the  bathroom 
work. 

There  is  a maidservant,  the  ayah,  who  makes  the 
beds  and  attends  the  smaller  children.  All  in  all,  the 
servants  are  as  faithful  and  honest  as  so  many  per- 
sons would  be  in  America,  if  they  were  often  pinched 
with  hunger.  There  are  many  trials  in  connection  with 
so  many  people  about  the  house,  and  one  often  wishes 
conditions  were  different.  But  since  they  are  as  they 
are,  we  make  the  best  we  can  out  of  them.  We  like  the 
servants,  as  a rule,  and  they  become  attached  to  us. 
They  are  very  polite,  and  seldom  give  us  a saucy  an- 
swer. They  will  bear  a great  deal  of  hardship  and 
fatigue  without  grumbling,  and  our  interest  is  always 
paramount  with  them,  next  to  their  own.  Their  wages 
range  from  one  dollar  to  two  dollars  and  a half  a 
month,  except  in  the  larger  cities,  where  they  are  more. 
Most  of  the  servants  we  had  were  with  us  a number  of 
years,  and  when  we  left  some  of  them  prostrated  them- 
selves at  our  feet,  and  wept  as  if  their  hearts  were 
breaking. 


sweeper  Burning  the  dead,  Benares 


Occupations 


155 


The  carpenter  comes  next.  He  is  the  man  who  makes 
anything,  from  the  rude  doors  and  door-jambs  in  the 
mud  houses,  to  bureaus,  bedsteads,  chairs,  and  beauti- 
ful inlaid  boxes  in  artistic  designs.  He  sits  on  his  heels 
in  his  shop  or  on  the  mud  floor  of  his  veranda,  and 
there  he  executes  his  work.  His  tools  are  not  many. 
A small  saw  with  hooked  teeth,  which  he  pulls  toward 
him  to  saw  his  boards,  is  quite  necessary.  His  joints 
are  cut  by  the  use  of  a mallet  and  chisel,  instead  of  a 
saw.  His  plane  usually  has  a rough  edge,  like  the 
edge  of  a sickle,  so  it  works  more  like  a rasp  on  the 
surface  of  a board  than  like  a smooth  plane.  He  bores 
not  with  brace  and  bit,  but  by  means  of  an  instrument 
which  resembles  a large  scratch  awl.  It  is  a diamond- 
pointed  bit  firmly  set  in  a handle,  which  handle  has  a 
number  of  grooves  turned  upon  it.  Then  he  takes  a 
round  stick,  say  a half-inch  in  diameter,  and  about 
two  and  one-half  feet  long,  and  to  each  end  of  this 
stick  he  ties  a strong  string,  leaving  it  quite  loose. 
This  string  he  winds  twice  around  the  handle  of  his 
bit  in  the  grooves  turned  for  this  purpose,  and  once 
around  his  thumb.  Now  he  takes  hold  of  the  stick 
with  the  same  hand  and  holds  it  firmly,  and  then  moves 
his  hand  back  and  forth.  This  motion  of  course  turns 
the  bit  the  same  as  a belt  turns  a wheel,  only  it  turns 
the  bit  one  way  and  then  another,  according  as  his  arm 
swings  backward  and  forward.  This  cuts  a clean,  nice 
hole  through  the  hardest  of  woods.  He  has  a variety 
of  sizes,  as  we  have  different-sized  bits,  only  none  of 
them  exceed  a half-inch  in  diameter.  If  a larger  hole 
is  required  a chisel  is  used. 


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The  school-teacher  is  a man  we  must  by  no  man- 
ner of  means  overlook.  He  is  a very  important  per- 
sonage. He  is  a man  usually  highly  respected  in  his 
village.  He  is  not  made  of  common  earth.  He  be- 
longs to  a class  by  himself.  He  is  “ to  the  manner 
born.”  He  may  be  extremely  poor  so  far  as  money 
goes,  yet  he  has  quite  an  important  bearing.  There 
are  many  grades  of  teachers.  I do  not  speak  so  much 
of  the  modern  teacher,  who  has  perhaps  been  to  Eng- 
land, or  is  at  least  a graduate  of  the  Calcutta  Univer- 
sity and  who  now  is  in  some  college,  and  teaches 
the  English  classics  in  the  English  language,  but  of  the 
old-fashioned  teacher.  This  man  goes  to  a village 
where  a school  is  needed,  and  after  finding  some  shed, 
or  finding  enough  people  who  will  contribute  to  build 
one,  he  organizes  his  school.  He  finds  enough  pupils 
who  will  agree  to  give  him  a handful  of  rice  and  a 
little  fruit,  and  some  ghee  and  salt,  etc.  Each  does  so, 
that  his  bodily  wants  may  be  supplied.  Some  may 
even  agree  to  bring  in  a few  cents  a month.  His  re- 
ward comes  when  he  gets  his  pupils  to  pass  the  gov- 
ernment examinations.  If  he  has  a large  school  and  is 
a good  teacher,  he  may  get  at  the  end  of  the  year  fif- 
teen or  twenty  dollars,  besides  the  rice,  etc.,  which  the 
pupils  give  him.  With  this  wrapped  up  in  his  cloth,  he 
goes  back  to  his  native  village  and  enjoys  life  with  his 
wife  and  family  during  the  long  vacation.  Let  us  go 
into  his  schoolhouse  and  study  the  situation.  It  may  be 
simply  a shed  with  a thatch  roof,  and  mud  walls  up 
half-way  to  the  roof  on  three  sides.  The  floor  is  of 
earth.  The  teacher  unrolls  his  mat  and  takes  his  seat 


Occupations 


157 


on  the  floor.  Now  he  makes  on  the  hard  earth  floor  a 
letter  with  his  chalk.  He  tells  them  all  to  make  the 
same  thing,  and  then  tells  them  it  is  Kaw.  They  all 
sing  at  the  top  of  their  voices  “ Kaw.”  And  then  the 
next  is  made  and  its  name  pronounced,  and  the  school 
in  unison  after  him  call  out  its  name.  So  on  they  go 
until  they  have  learned  the  two  hundred  and  fifty  let- 
ters and  combinations  in  their  alphabet.  A well-drilled 
school  sounds  like  the  roar  of  a waterfall. 

Schools  with  more  modern-trained  teachers  and 
under  mission  supervision  are  conducted  somewhat 
differently,  but  you  would  scarcely  hear  a pin  drop  in 
any  of  them.  To  study  quietly  or  teach  quietly  seems 
to  the  natives  quite  out  of  place. 

There  are  rich  bankers  and  brokers,  as  well  as  whole- 
sale merchants  of  all  sorts. 

In  all  large  towns  and  cities  money-changers  abound. 
They  have  a small  room  opening  on  the  street  in  the 
more  public  thoroughfare,  and  here  the  men  sit  on  a 
grass  mat  on  the  floor  beside  their  money  boxes.  On 
the  floor  about  them  are  coins  of  all  kinds  and  de- 
nominations, in  value  from  the  eighth  of  a cent  up  to 
one  hundred  dollars  or  more.  For  the  sum  of  half  a 
cent  and  upward  they  will  change  money  to  any 
amount  desired. 

Jugglers  are  seen  now  and  again,  though  like  the 
snakes  of  India  they  are  not  so  numerous  as  people 
imagine.  These  usually  go  two  together,  though  some- 
times there  is  quite  a camp  of  them.  They  carry  a very 
small  drum  which  has  a peculiar  sound,  and  one  al- 
ways knows  of  their  approach  by  the  vigorous  beating 


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India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


of  this  drum.  Some  of  their  tricks  are  quite  clever, 
and  the  people  are  very  fond  of  seeing  them  perform. 
About  once  a year  I allowed  them  to  set  up  in  our 
yard  for  the  entertainment  of  ourselves  and  all  the 
village  people. 

The  priests  are  a numerous  class.  I have  no  good 
word  to  say  of  them.  They  serve  the  idols,  taking 
good  care  to  serve  themselves  in  the  meantime.  Lazy, 
greedy,  licentious,  are  the  adjectives  which  in  gen- 
eral apply  to  them. 

Palky  bearers  were  a class  with  which  formerly  more 
than  now  the  travelers  had  to  deal.  It  takes  six  of  these 
men  to  each  palky,  four  carrying  at  a time  and  two  to 
change.  Sometimes  eight  men  are  required.  The  vex- 
ations incident  to  this  mode  of  travel  and  with  these 
men  is  a subject  too  prolific  to  deal  with  in  detail.  The 
old-school  Bengali  babu  still  clings  to  his  palky,  for  it 
affords  him  ample  room  to  sit  with  his  feet  folded 
under  him,  or  to  recline  on  his  cushion,  both  of  which 
are  favorite  attitudes.  No  modern  innovation  of  seats 
where  one’s  legs  have  to  hang  down  for  him. 

I would  like  to  speak  of  the  lawyers  at  some  length, 
but  suffice  it  to  say  that  they  are  not  unlike  the  profes- 
sion as  Christ  knew  them  (Luke  11:46).  Take  the 
natural  temptations  to  lawyers  and  couple  with  that 
the  depraved  and  cunning  character  of  the  Orient,  and 
you  may  imagine  what  the  product  would  be. 

All  who  have  lived  in  a kutchery  station  have  seen 
the  army  of  clerks  as  each  day  they  wend  their  way  to 
the  courthouse.  A more  satisfied  lot  of  men  never 
lived.  Some  have  passed  the  university-entrance  test, 


Occupations 


159 


and  others  have  tried  and  failed — both  equally  credi- 
table in  the  mind  of  the  native.  They  now  have  a 
position  at  from  two  dollars  to  twenty  or  thirty  dol- 
lars per  month,  and  what  more  can  a soul  desire?  The 
clerk  has  a very  pompous  swing  when  he  walks;  is 
dressed,  in  addition  to  other  garments,  in  red  or  blue- 
striped  socks  and  patent-leather  shoes.  He  has  on  a 
white  shirt,  and  a thin  white  dhuti  around  his  loins, 
and  a white  muslin  cloth  thrown  loosely  around  his 
shoulders  and  neck.  He  is  in  no  hurry  when  he  gets 
into  his  office.  His  seat  is  generally  on  a mat  made  of 
grass.  He  lays  aside  his  extreme  outer  garment,  and 
proceeds  first  to  unroll  his  grass  mat  and  then  to  un- 
lock his  wooden  or  tin  box.  This  contains  his  reed 
pen  and  earthen  ink  bottle,  and  a quantity  of  brown 
paper.  He  dips  his  pen  deeply  in  his  ink  bottle,  and 
then  throws  the  superfluous  ink  on  the  mat.  “ A work- 
man is  known  by  his  chips,”  and  a mat  well  spotted 
with  ink  denotes  a vigorous  workman.  He  needs  no 
desk  on  which  to  write.  The  top  of  his  box  will  do, 
or  more  likely  he  will  hold  his  paper  in  one  hand  while 
he  writes  with  the  other.  Speed  is  not  aimed  at,  but 
accuracy  is.  His  accounts  must  be  correct  to  a fraction 
of  a cent.  When  his  day’s  work  is  done  he  wends  his 
way  home,  and  removes  these  superfluous  garments 
with  which  modern  civilization  has  compelled  him  to 
be  clothed,  and  with  the  covering  nature  gave  him, 
with  a little  addition  of  man’s  manufacture  about  his 
loins,  he  lies  on  his  divan,  or  sits  cross-legged  on  his 
mat,  and  smokes  his  hookah  and  chats  and  eats,  gam- 
bles sometimes,  and  so  lives  in  his  native  simplicity 

L 


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India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


until  the  duties  of  another  day  call  him  away.  And 
thus  his  life  passes.  He  has  little  ambition  to  rise, 
unless  it  be  for  the  more  money  there  may  be  in  it. 

The  herdsmen  are  those  who  keep  cattle  and  have 
milk  and  ghee  (clarified  butter)  for  sale.  Their  chil- 
dren drive  out  the  cattle  to  the  commons  in  the  morn- 
ing and  back  to  the  enclosures  at  night.  They  are  sup- 
posed to  look  out  very  sharply  that  none  of  the  cows 
eat  the  heads  of  rice  as  they  pass  the  rice  fields,  and 
yet  many  a tender  morsel  of  rice  is  nipped  by  them  as 
they  go  and  come. 

A cow  gives  milk  only  as  long  as  the  calf  sucks, 
and  always  the  calf  must  have  a little  before  the  cow 
is  milked.  These  habits  cannot  be  changed  even  in 
the  herd  of  missionary  cows. 

The  cows  in  Bengal  are  for  the  most  part  small,  and 
give  about  a quart  of  milk,  more  or  less,  at  each  milk- 
ing. The  milk  jar  is  sweetened  and  purified  by  hold- 
ing it  over  the  smoke  of  some  burning  cow  manure, 
dried  thoroughly  for  that  purpose.  A little  of  this 
manure  is  also  supposed  to  give  the  milk  a better 
flavor.  This  is  why  we  can  never  use  the  milk  from 
the  Hindu  villages.  We  insist  that  our  milkmen  shall 
have  clean  vessels  to  milk  in,  but  the  Hindu  cannot 
understand  such  absurd  customs.  Buffaloes  give  a 
very  rich  milk,  and  are  used  largely  in  many  parts  for 
both  their  milk  and  ghee. 

Chowl  wallees  are  rice  women.  Carrying  rice  is 
a distinct  industry.  These  poor  women  go  to  the 
farmers  round  about  and  buy  the  unhulled  rice  and 
hull  it,  and  carry  it  to  market  (sometimes  a distance 


Occupations 


161 


of  six  or  eight  miles)  upon  their  heads  or  hips,  and 
sell  it  at  enough  advance  to  get  small  pay  for  their 
labor.  Long  lines  of  these  poor  women  may  be  seen 
almost  any  day  during  the  cold  season  bringing  their 
rice  to  market  in  this  way. 

There  are  fishermen  in  India  as  in  other  countries. 
The  rivers  abound  in  fish,  and  almost  every  tank  has 
its  fish,  and  in  the  Bay  of  Bengal  fish  are  very  nu- 
merous. In  no  country  can  better  fish  be  found  or 
a greater  variety.  They  are  caught  mainly  by  seines, 
and  from  the  bay  are  spread  out  on  the  shore  to  dry. 
The  natives  do  not  mind  if  the  fish  are  a little  old. 
In  fact,  they  are  rather  fond  of  a stale  fish,  just  as 
some  people  like  Limburger  cheese. 

The  barber  is  the  man  with  a bag  by  his  side,  in 
which  are  his  shears  and  razor,  and  a knife  for  cutting 
toenails  and  fingernails.  He  may  always  be  told  by 
this  badge.  The  poorer  natives  will  hail  him  as  he 
passes  along  the  street,  and  both  proceed  to  squat  on 
the  ground  or  sidewalk,  while  the  barber  proceeds  to 
shave  his  customer.  One  cent  pays  the  bill.  No  soap 
is  necessary,  and  a little  water  put  on  by  the  finger  is 
all  that  is  needed.  This  same  barber,  or  some  other, 
comes  to  the  home  of  Europeans  and  does  the  barber- 
ing  for  the  man  of  the  house.  For  two  rupees  per 
month  he  will  shave  a person  two  or  three  times  a 
week,  keep  his  hair  cut,  and  trim  his  nails  if  requested. 

There  are  also  those  who  get  their  living  by  cut- 
ting wood  from  the  jungles,  and  bringing  it  to  market 
for  sale.  Also  men  who  make  charcoal,  and  bring  it 
many  miles  on  their  shoulders  and  sell  it  for  fuel. 


1 62  India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


Here  in  this  great  country  are  three  hundred  millions 
of  people  who  want  to  live,  and  the  greater  number 
of  them  are  struggling  to  live.  They  are,  as  a rule, 
hard-working  and  painstaking.  They  are  selfish,  to 
be  sure,  and  sharp  at  a bargain,  but  no  more  so  than 
many  of  the  people  of  Christian  countries.  Their  in- 
terest in  the  welfare  of  the  man  who  employs  them  is 
deep  and  genuine,  and  especially  if  they  have  been 
many  years  in  one’s  employ.  Their  burdens  are  often 
very  heavy,  but  uncomplainingly  they  bear  them. 
Christianity  would  do  much  to  lighten  their  burdens, 
and  we  pray  that  the  toiler  of  India  may  soon  see  and 
accept  the  better  life. 


CHAPTER  XIV 


A Glance  at  Hinduism 

THERE  are  many  languages  spoken  in  India, 
many  nationalities  represented,  and  adherents 
to  many  kinds  of  religions.  Away  back  at 
the  very  dawn  of  history,  fifteen  or  twenty 
centuries  before  Christ,  when  our  Aryan  brothers  first 
entered  India  as  invaders,  there  were  hordes  of  peo- 
ple scattered  over  its  fertile  plains.  These  aborigines 
were  worshipers  of  evil  spirits.  They  thought  it  bet- 
ter to  appease  the  wrath  of  the  evil  spirits,  their  en- 
emies, than  to  invoke  the  blessing  of  the  good  spirits. 
Though  many  of  these  tribes  have  been  grafted  into 
Hinduism,  they  still  retain  some  of  these  practices. 

Hinduism  is  not  what  it  was  three  or  four  thousand 
years  ago.  The  Hindus  were  never  monotheistic,  but 
were  formerly  much  nearer  so  than  now.  Then  they 
said : “ Suerja,  the  sun,  drives  away  the  cold  and  gives 
us  light,  and  should  receive  adoration;  Indra,  rain, 
makes  our  rice  and  millet  and  grass  grow,  and  should 
be  worshiped;  Agni,  fire,  is  powerful,  and  should  be 
an  object  of  our  devotions.”  In  Vedic  times  they 
reasoned  thus,  and  had  but  thirty-three  gods — eleven 
in  heaven,  eleven  on  the  earth,  and  eleven  in  midair. 
Gradually  they  came  to  believe  that  everything  was 
but  a manifestation  of  supreme  power,  or  a part  of 
the  supreme  power,  and  should  be  worshiped;  and  so 

163 


164 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


their  thirty-three  gods  multiplied  into  thirty-three 
millions. 

The  Hindus  are  idolaters.  The  more  educated  do 
not  wish  to  be  classed  with  those  who  worship  idols, 
and  there  are  defenders  of  Hinduism  in  America  and 
England  who  do  not  call  them  idolaters.  I have 
more  than  once  talked  with  educated  Hindus,  who 
claimed  that  they  were  not  worshiping  the  idol  but 
God,  which  the  idol  represents.  They  say : “ As  you 
Christians  believe  that  God  is  in  everything  and  every- 
where, so  do  we;  and  therefore  he  is  in  this  brass  idol 
and  in  this  tree  which  we  worship.”  That  sounds  very 
well,  but  two  things  must  be  borne  in  mind  in  this 
connection : and  the  first  is,  they  do  not  think  God  is 
in  everything  and  thus  worship  him,  for  the  priest 
must  put  on  the  mark  before  an  image  or  a tree  be- 
comes an  object  of  worship.  The  other  is  that  the 
great  mass*  of  the  common  people  think  the  idol  itself 
has  the  power  to  hear  and  to  help. 

Before  the  Aryans  settled  down  to  till  the  soil,  they 
were  but  wandering  herdsmen,  and  their  wealth  con- 
sisted of  their  cattle.  Even  after  they  became  culti- 
vators they  were  anxious  to  increase  their  herds.  The 
faithful  bullock  plowed  their  fields  and  bore  upon 
his  back  their  burdens,  and  the  cow  gave  them  milk 
and  butter.  If  any  object  was  worthy  of  adoration,  it 
was  these  faithful  animals;  so  the  cow  and  the  bull 
early  became  sacred  in  the  eyes  of  the  devout  Hindu. 
The  image  representing  a crouching  bull  is  called 
Mahadab,  and  means,  literally,  “ great  god.”  We  find 
a great  many  such  images.  Some  of  these  are  of  gi- 


On  the  banks  of  the  Ganges,  Benares; 
stone  god.  Mohadabc 


Temples  on  the  banks  of  the  Ganges,  Benares 


A Glance  at  Hinduism 


165 


gantic  size,  as  the  one  near  the  Well  of  Knowledge  in 
the  city  of  Benares;  others  are  small.  Some  are  kept 
in  public-places,  and  others  in  temples  and  private 
houses. 

A queen  who  lived  near  our  mission  in  India,  reali- 
zing that  her  end  was  near,  had  brought  to  her  side  her 
favorite  cow,  and  taking  its  tail  in  her  hand  passed 
quietly  and  contentedly  into  the  spirit  land. 

Motherhood  is  the  one  great  thing  to  be  desired 
on  the  part  of  a wife  in  India;  and  no  disgrace, 
scarcely,  is  greater  than  that  of  being  childless.  Such 
women  are  taught  that  if  they  perform  a proper  wor- 
ship at  the  shrine  of  Mahadab  they  may  become 
mothers.  There  are  many  things  in  connection  with 
the  worship  of  this  image  of  which  I cannot  speak, 
for  with  our  ideas  of  decency  they  would  be  considered 
obscene  in  the  extreme. 

The  Hindus  attach  great  sanctity  to  certain  places, 
and  think  a visit  to  these  places  will  in  some  way 
bring  great  good  to  them.  Among  the  most  noted  of 
these  is  Benares.  What  Mecca  is  to  the  Mohammed- 
ans, or  Jerusalem  to  the  Jews,  that  is  Benares  to  the 
Hindus.  I was  once  on  the  train  in  the  same  compart- 
ment with  two  well-educated  native  gentlemen,  going 
up  from  Mogul  Sarai  to  Benares.  As  soon  as  the 
minarets  of  its  mosques  and  the  spires  of  its  temples 
came  in  sight,  they  exclaimed,  “ Behold  our  sacred 
city ! ” Built  upon  the  high  and  sloping  banks  of  the 
Ganges  River,  from  a distance  it  presents  a beautiful 
appearance.  Closer  acquaintance,  however,  removes  the 
delusion.  But  to  the  devout  Hindu,  the  very  sight  of 


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India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


it  brings  raptures  of  joy;  for  if  he  can  but  bathe  in  the 
sacred  Ganges,  in  this  the  holiest  of  cities,  great  merit 
is  put  down  to  his  credit  by  the  god  who  keeps  a care- 
ful record  of  all  our  good  and  bad  deeds,  and  offsets 
the  one  by  the  other.  What  wonder  is  it  then  that,  for 
miles  along  its  banks,  priests  may  be  seen  sitting  every 
day  in  the  year  under  their  large  umbrellas  to  receive 
the  offerings  of  the  pilgrims  who  have  come  from  all 
parts  of  India  to  bathe  in  Ma  Ganga — Mother  Ganges  ? 

Here  too  are  the  burning-places  to  which  the  dead 
are  borne  from  as  great  a distance  as  possible;  for 
if  their  ashes  can  be  sprinkled  on  the  holy  river  the 
day  of  their  complete  redemption  will  be  hastened. 
Sometimes  aged  people  come  here  to  die. 

A ride  in  a boat,  gently  floating  with  the  current,  in 
the  morning,  for  a distance  of  four  miles,  down  by 
these  bathing-places,  will  make  impressions  never  to 
be  forgotten.  There  is  devotion  enough  to  awe  you 
into  silence  and  meditation,  and  disgusting  sights 
enough  to  sicken  you  at  heart  and  stomach.  It  may 
truly  be  said  of  many  of  the  Hindus  that  they  are 
“ weary  and  heavy-laden.”  They  seem  extremely  rest- 
less, as  if  in  possession  of  the  knowledge  that  they  are 
a long  way  from  God,  and  are  trying  to  find  their  way 
back  to  him.  Many  of  them  spend  the  last  years  of 
their  lives  in  going  from  one  shrine  to  another.  Some 
of  them  are  satisfied  with  visiting  a single  shrine. 

There  are  places  of  established  merit,  and  there  are 
others  for  which  priests  and  pandas  are  trying  to 
work  up  a reputation.  Brindaban  has  long  been  one 
of  the  most  sacred,  its  priests  claiming  for  it  even 


A Glance  at  Hinduism 


167 


greater  sanctity  than  that  of  Benares  itself.  It  is  a 
city  full  of  temples,  and  Seth’s  Temple  is  the  most 
beautiful  and  costly  of  them  all;  in  fact,  the  most  costly 
Hindu  temple  in  the  world.  The  king  of  Jeypore  is 
building  one  now  at  Brindaban  which  will  be  a rival 
to  the  celebrated  Taj  Mahal.  When  I was  at  the  place, 
a few  years  ago,  five  hundred  men  had  been  at  work 
on  it  five  years,  and  it  was  still  far  from  being  com- 
pleted. Here  also  come  pilgrims  in  great  numbers. 

Four  miles  from  Brindaban  is  the  city  of  Muttra, 
on  the  river  Jumna,  between  Agra  and  Delhi.  This 
is  the  reputed  birthplace  of  Krishna,  considered  as  an 
incarnation  of  Vishnu.  On  the  plains  near  the  city 
he  fed  his  herds,  and  numerous  relics  of  antiquity 
attest  the  sanctity  with  which  the  place  is  invested. 
Krishna  was  no  doubt  a hero,  strong  and  brave  in 
battle,  as  well  as  too  full  of  craft  and  cunning  for  his 
enemies  to  succeed  against  him.  He  defended  the  city 
of  Muttra  against  eighteen  attacks  by  the  father-in- 
law  of  Kansa,  and  finally,  after  complete  victory,  sat 
and  rested  here  on  the  banks  of  the  Jumna.  From  be- 
ing a hero  he  gradually  became  transformed  into  a 
god,  and  is  now  as  extensively  worshiped  as  any.  The 
word  beshram  means  resting,  and  therefore  beshram 
ghat  means  the  resting-place,  or  stairs.  Being  the 
spot  where  Krishna  rested,  devotees  visit  it  from  all 
parts  of  India. 

At  this  ghat  several  things  of  unique  interest  are 
seen,  though  widely  different  in  their  nature.  One  is 
the  tall  pillar  near-by  called  Suttee  Bourge,  or  the  pil- 
lar of  suttee.  It  is  a memorial  pillar  erected  on  the 


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India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


spot  where  a live  queen  was  burned  beside  her  dead 
husband.  Then  there  are  the  huge  turtles  which 
abound,  and  to  feed  which  seems  to  be  part  of  the 
duty  of  the  pilgrims.  The  turtles  wall  jostle  each  other 
in  trying  to  get  the  lion’s  share  of  the  parched  rice 
thrown  to  them.  Equally  curious  are  the  “ weighing 
arches.”  Kings  and  princes  making  pilgrimages  to 
this  place  have  on  some  occasions  erected  arches, 
fastened  scales  to  the  top  of  them,  and  weighed  them- 
selves against  so  many  pounds  of  silver,  avoirdupois, 
giving  the  money  to  the  priests. 

Far  up  toward  the  northwest  of  India  the  river 
Ganges  emerges,  clear  and  cold,  from  the  mountains 
into  the  plains ; and  a city  called  Hurdwar  is  built  upon 
its  banks  at  this  point.  Brahminical  teachings  have 
attached  great  sanctity  and  importance  to  this  place, 
and  here  also  every  year  come  thousands  of  pilgrims. 
Once  in  twelve  years  the  place  has  especial  virtues, 
and  in  this  year  hundreds  of  thousands  visit  it.  The 
railroads  are  taxed  for  weeks  to  their  utmost,  carrying 
people  in  stockcars,  crowded  together  as  thickly  as 
possible,  as  well  as  on  the  regular  trains.  Thousands 
also  go  on  foot;  for  more  virtue  lies  in  making  a pil- 
grimage on  foot  than  by  train. 

The  day  that  I visited  the  place  was  sadhus’  day. 
The  word  sadhu  means  holy  man,  or  devotee.  These 
men  had  congregated  from  different  parts  of  the  coun- 
try to  the  number  of  two  thousand  or  more.  Many 
Europeans  also  were  present,  among  them  the  present 
Czar  of  Russia,  who  was  then  making  a tour  of  India. 
Very  early  in  the  morning  I was  awakened  by  the 


A Glance  at  Hinduism 


169 


shrill  notes  of  a wind  instrument  corresponding  to  our 
clarinet.  I made  ready  my  camera  to  take  a photo- 
graph, but  found  it  impossible  to  get  near  on  account 
of  the  multitude  of  people.  They  began  their  exercises 
by  a sword  performance,  and  then  were  marshaled 
into  line  for  a procession.  First  came  sadhus  on 
richly  caparisoned  elephants,  these  were  followed  by 
those  on  camels,  then  some  on  ponies,  and,  lastly,  others 
on  foot.  I was  told  that  they  were  to  cross  the  pon- 
toon bridge,  so  stationed  myself  at  the  nearest  available 
point  to  get  a photograph.  The  only  remarkable  thing 
about  this  day’s  worship  was  that  all  day  long  these 
men,  to  the  number  of  at  least  two  thousand,  paraded 
the  streets  of  the  city  as  naked  as  they  were  the  day 
they  were  born,  in  the  presence  of  a multitude  of  men, 
women,  and  children. 

Another  thing  essentially  connected  with  their  re- 
ligion is  the  belief  in  the  transmigration  of  souls. 
That  doctrine  is  simply  this : When  a person  dies  only 
his  body  dies,  and  the  spirit,  which  was  in  the  body, 
had  previously  been  in  some  other  body  and  would 
again  go  to  another  body.  All  sin,  they  say,  must  be 
punished,  and  the  suffering  we  have  in  the  flesh  is  a 
punishment  for  past  sins.  They  may  not  be  the  sins 
committed  in  this  body,  but  in  some  previous  body. 
We  argue,  if  sorrow  comes  to  us  here  it  may  all  be 
rectified  in  the  future  life.  They  argue  that  it  comes 
from  the  past  life.  We  are  inspired  through  suffering 
and  trials  to  hope  on;  they  have  no  incentive  to  hope. 
They  say  when  they  have  been  born  enough  times,  and 
suffered  enough  to  atone  for  all  sins,  then  they  will  be 


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India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


absorbed  and  become  a part  of  God.  More  than  four 
million  births,  in  different  forms  of  life,  are  ordinarily 
necessary  fully  to  purify  the  soul.  But  supreme  acts 
of  penance  can  have  a great  deal  to  do  in  cutting  short 
these  cycles  of  births.  Hence  we  have  the  sadhu,  or 
devotee. 

A close  view  of  a sadhu  reveals  a man  with  an  un- 
shaven face  and  uncut  hair.  Often  his  hair  hangs 
down  in  a matted  condition  to  his  waist,  or  lower. 
His  body  is  covered  with  ashes,  and  he  has  on  but  the 
scantiest  bit  of  cotton  cloth  around  his  loins.  In  win- 
ter a very  coarse  blanket  is  thrown  over  the  shoulders 
and  hangs  down  the  back.  The  villagers  light  a fire 
for  them,  if  it  is  winter,  under  some  tree,  and  here 
they  sit,  eat,  and  sleep.  Sometimes  the  sadhu  crouches 
on  a bed  of  sharp  spikes,  several  hours  a day,  while 
in  his  hands  he  holds  his  sacred  beads  on  which  he 
calls  over  the  names  of  his  gods.  The  badge  of  his 
calling  is  a pair  of  iron  tongs,  which  he  uses  to  lift 
the  coals  of  fire  to  put  on  his  pipeful  of  gunja;  for  all 
of  this  class  stupefy  themselves  by  smoking  this  terri- 
ble drug.  Sometimes  their  long  hair  is  coiled  on  the 
top  of  their  heads. 

They  may  at  times  be  seen  with  one  hand  held 
up  until  it  becomes  fixed  in  that  position,  and  some- 
times even  both  hands  are  thus  extended.  The  poor 
fellow  who  is  pictured  in  the  illustration  had  had  his 
hands  in  this  position  for  twelve  years  when  I took  the 
photograph. 

I said  to  him,  “ Don’t  your  arms  pain  you?  ” 

“ Not  now,”  he  replied.  “ When  I first  began  they 


scidu,  “ holy  man,”  spends  his  life  A devotee,  arms  rigid 

wandering  from  place  to  place 


A Glance  at  Hinduism 


171 


pained  me  so  I could  not  endure  it,  and  so  I had  to  tie 
them  up,  but  after  they  became  fixed  they  did  not 
hurt  any  more.” 

On  entering  the  low  door  of  a house  he  must  bend 
his  body,  allowing  his  hands  to  enter  first.  The  com- 
mon people  do  these  singular  creatures  homage,  and 
even  the  better  educated  and  wealthy  often  bow  down 
to  the  earth  in  front  of  them. 

As  I was  coming  up  the  street  with  this  man,  a 
babu  (native  gentleman)  came  out  and  saluted  him, 
and  asked  him  to  stop  a moment  until  his  son  should 
come  out.  Soon  the  son  came.  He  was  a young  man, 
well  dressed,  and  attending  the  government  college  at 
Balasore.  He  at  first  put  his  hands  together  in  a sup- 
pliant attitude,  and  made  a low  bow  to  the  sadhu. 
But  that  would  not  do.  The  sadhu  told  him  to  pros- 
trate himself  in  the  dust,  which  the  young  man  at  once 
proceeded  to  do.  ' Then  the  sadhu  put  his  foot  upon 
him  to  emphasize  his  humiliation.  The  underlying 
idea  in  pilgrimages  is  this  doctrine  of  transmigration 
of  souls,  and  penance  is  more  often  performed  in  this 
way  than  in  any  other. 

Among  the  many  images  worshiped,  few  occupy 
a more  prominent  place  than  Juggernaut.  He  is 
simply  a hideous,  armless,  legless,  carved  piece  of 
wood.  There  are  several  legends  which  attempt  to 
account  for  his  form,  and  also  for  the  sanctity  of  the 
town  of  Puri,  called  also  Juggernaut,  in  the  southern 
part  of  Orissa,  where  he  originally  appeared.  At 
Puri  is  his  greatest  temple;  but  in  many,  and  in  fact 
every  town  in  Orissa  and  Bengal,  his  temples  are  seen. 


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India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


The  word  means  “ lord  of  the  world,”  and  the  great 
virtue  of  a pilgrimage  is  to  see  him  rather  than  to 
worship. 

As  our  house  was  on  the  great  pilgrim  road,  we 
had  opportunity  of  seeing  and  conversing  with  many 
of  the  pilgrims.  Every  day  hundreds,  and  many  days 
thousands,  of  these  poor  creatures  could  be  seen  go- 
ing to  or  returning  from  Puri.  If  we  asked  them  what 
benefit  they  hoped  to  get  from  a sight  of  Juggernaut, 
they  would  reply  “ Mukti  ” (freedom  from  sin). 

At  all  times  of  the  year  pilgrims  go  more  or  less 
to  see  Juggernaut,  but  in  much  larger  numbers  when 
what  is  known  as  the  rath  jatra,  or  car  festival,  is  to 
take  place.  This  is  the  occasion  of  the  annual  ride  of 
Juggernaut.  There  are  in  fact  three  days  during 
which  the  idol  is  exposed  to  public  view.  The  first 
is  the  bathing  festival,  when  he  is  taken  from  his 
temple,  and,  on  a lofty  platform  in  the  presence  of  a 
vast  multitude  of  people,  is  bathed  by  the  priests. 
They  bathe  themselves  every  day,  but  their  god  only 
once  a year,  so  not  being  used  to  cold  water  he  is  sup- 
posed to  take  a severe  cold.  He  is  therefore  taken  back 
and  put  into  his  temple  for  ten  days,  when  he  is  again 
brought  out,  and  by  the  assistance  of  the  priests  is  made 
to  walk  up  the  inclined  bridge  from  the  ground  to  the 
platform  of  his  huge  car.  He  is  placed  under  a canopy 
made  of  different-colored  cloths,  and  his  car  is  fes- 
tooned with  flowers.  By  his  side  sit  his  brother  Bala- 
rama  and  his  sister  Subhadra,  or  they  may  have  sepa- 
rate cars.  Three  ponderous  ropes,  a thousand  or  fifteen 
hundred  feet  long,  are  attached  to  the  car,  and  these 


J uggernoth,  with  his  sister  and  brother , seated  on  his  ear 


A Glance  at  Hinduism 


173 


are  laid  along  the  street  as  far  as  they  will  extend. 
When  the  priests  and  musicians  have  assembled  on 
the  platform  of  the  car,  and  the  people  have  taken  hold 
of  the  ropes,  to  the  number  of  sometimes  ten  thousand, 
the  officiating  priest  gives  the  order  for  the  car  to 
move.  The  musicians,  with  drums  and  horns  and 
cymbals,  and  other  kinds  of  instruments,  more  designed 
to  produce  noise  than  harmony,  begin  to  play,  and  the 
people  begin  to  shout,  and  the  great  car  begins  to  move. 
It  is  a monstrous,  unwieldy  affair,  and  with  nothing 
to  guide  it  but  the  ropes,  often  does  damage  to  build- 
ings along  the  streets.  Juggernaut  is  taken  to  a neigh- 
boring temple,  where  his  maternal  aunt  is  supposed  to 
reside,  and  after  staying  there  a week  is  again  placed 
on  his  car,  though  with  much  less  enthusiasm  on  the 
part  of  the  people  than  on  the  first  occasion,  and  is 
taken  back  to  his  own  temple,  where  he  sits  until  the 
next  year. 

In  the  city  of  Puri  pilgrims  congregate  to  the  num- 
ber of  from  one  to  two  hundred  thousand  to  witness 
the  rath.  When  the  return  festival  is  over,  they  begin 
to  disperse.  To  get  a correct  idea  of  the  sufferings  of 
the  pilgrims  during  their  long  journeys  and  their  stay 
at  Puri,  one  must  see  them.  The  rath  occurs  usually  in 
the  month  of  July,  when  the  rains  are  well  upon  us  and 
there  are  but  scant  accommodations  for  the  people,  and 
many  have  not  the  means  to  provide  themselves  with 
shelter  even  if  shelter  could  be  had ; so  thousands  sleep 
under  trees  on  the  damp  ground,  thus  bringing  on 
cholera  and  other  destructive  and  contagious  diseases. 
To  see  a sick  or  dying  or  dead  pilgrim  lying  alone, 


174 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


deserted  by  his  friends,  under  the  shade  of  some 
banyan  or  peepul  or  mango  tree,  is  a most  common 
sight. 

This  temple  at  Puri  is  supposed  to  be  the  richest 
shrine  in  all  India.  It  employs  seven  hundred  pandas, 
or  Hindu  missionaries,  who  go,  two  and  two,  into  the 
villages  all  through  India,  to  tell  the  poor,  ignorant 
people  of  the  great  virtues  of  Juggernaut,  and  so  per- 
suade many  to  go  on  a pilgrimage  who  otherwise 
would  not  go. 

The  pandas  make  a careful  inquiry  into  the  finan- 
cial standing  of  every  one  who  engages  to  go  on  a 
pilgrimage;  this  list  is  handed  to  the  priests  at  Puri, 
and  each  one  is  charged  according  to  his  wealth  to 
see  Juggernaut  in  his  temple;  none,  however,  being 
admitted  for  less  than  twenty  rupees,  or  about  six 
dollars.  If  they  have  not  this  amount,  the  priests  lend  it 
to  them,  taking  as  interest  an  equivalent  to  three  cents 
on  a dollar  per  month.  This  is  regarded  as  a sacred 
obligation,  and  binding  upon  the  individual  and  his 
children  and  successors  for  fourteen  generations.  The 
priests  often  extort  the  last  cent  pilgrims  have,  and 
they  are  allowed  to  start  home,  not  knowing  where 
the  next  meal  is  to  come  from. 

They  sometimes  go  on  a pilgrimage  by  prostrations. 
The  person  making  this  kind  of  pilgrimage  will  stand 
in  the  road,  put  his  hands  together  in  a suppliant  at- 
titude, offer  a short  prayer,  and  then  prostrate  him- 
self in  the  road,  reaching  out  his  hands  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, and  with  a spike,  which  he  carries  in  his  right 
hand,  makes  a mark  in  the  dust  or  mud,  as  the  case 


A pilgrimage  by  prostrations 


A “ holy  man  ” on  a bed  of  spikes 


A Glance  at  Hinduism 


175 


may  be.  He  then  gets  up,  puts  his  toes  to  this  mark, 
says  his  prayer,  and  again  prostrates  himself.  Three 
miles  is  the  utmost  distance  a man  can  go  in  a day  in 
this  way,  and  more  often  he  can  go  but  a mile.  These 
people  sometimes  are  three  years  in  making  this  kind 
of  pilgrimage. 

One  morning  in  the  month  of  May,  one  of  the  hottest 
of  our  months,  I met  one  of  these  men  who  was  will- 
ing to  talk.  Often  they  take  a vow  of  silence,  and 
speak  to  no  one  for  the  whole  time  occupied  in  a pil- 
grimage; but  this  man  stood  as  soon  as  I began  to 
talk  to  him. 

I said,  “ Do  you  think  God  is  pleased  to  see  you 
suffer  as  you  do  this  morning  ? ” 

Said  he,  “ Yes,  he  is.” 

“ But  you  are  one  of  God’s  children,  and  he  is  full 
of  love  for  his  children,  even  though  they  have  gone  a 
long  way  from  him  in  sin.” 

“ No,”  said  he,  “ God  is  not  full  of  love;  he  is  very 
cruel.” 

Words  were  useless;  for  the  man  had  set  his  face 
toward  Puri,  and  after  resting  a moment  resumed 
his  long  and  weary  journey.  Only  in  this  way,  ac- 
cording to  his  thought,  could  he  appease  his  god. 

While  it  is  true  that  the  people  can  worship  in 
their  own  dooryard  before  the  toolsy  plant,  and  can 
worship  under  green  trees,  still  they  have  thousands 
of  temples.  Some  of  these  are  but  the  rudest  of 
shanties,  and  some  are  magnificent  structures,  and  es- 
pecially so  if  looked  at  from  a distance.  Many  of  them 
are  covered  with  stucco-work  from  bottom  to  top. 

M 


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India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


These  figures  represent  scenes  in  their  mythology,  and 
to  us,  whose  education  is  so  unlike  theirs,  often  seem 
vulgar,  or  to  have  a suggestion  of  lewdness. 

Sometimes  the  adornments  on  the  inside  are  vile 
in  the  extreme,  as  I know  from  personal  observation. 
In  fact,  we  must  not  suppose  that  a Hindu  temple  is 
for  the  Hindus  to  worship  in.  They  are  for  the  idols 
and  the  priests.  In  the  morning  the  priests  perform 
the  worship  in  the  temple,  and  come  out  and  sit  on 
the  porch,  and  smoke  their  pipes,  and  chew  their  pan, 
and  gossip,  and  bathe  in  the  tank  near-by;  but  they 
do  not  say  comforting  words  to  the  poor,  and  weary, 
and  heavy-laden.  They  do  not  try  to  lift  the  loads  off 
shoulders  which  are  all  but  crushed;  but  on  the  other 
hand,  lay  heavier  burdens  upon  them. 

No  glance  at  Hinduism  would  be  at  all  complete 
without  a reference  to  caste.  Caste  is  social  distinc- 
tion, based  not  upon  wealth,  position,  education,  or 
character,  but  upon  birth.  It  is  perfectly  natural  for 
people  of  like  tastes  to  associate  together,  and  so  the 
bigoted  Hindu  tells  us  that  Christian  nations  have 
caste.  I have  more  than  once  been  told  by  them  that 
there  is  just  as  much  caste  in  England  as  in  India. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  there  is  too  much  of  a 
caste  feeling  growing  up  in  some  places,  even  in  our 
own  country,  but  it  is  very  different  from  the  caste 
of  India.  There  is  nothing  to  prevent  the  people  in 
the  highest  circles  in  this  country  from  going  down 
into  the  slums  and  helping  raise  up  the  fallen.  In  fact, 
they  are  doing  that  very  thing,  and  year  by  year  are 
doing  more  of  that  kind  of  work;  but  not  so  with  the 


A Glance  at  Hinduism 


177 


caste  people  of  India.  A high-caste  man  does  not 
want  to  touch  a low-caste.  He  must  on  no  account 
eat  with  him.  If  he  does,  he  becomes  an  out-caste. 
When  some  of  these  men  in  our  Parliament  of  Re- 
ligions, in  Chicago,  said  that  they  laid  down  a plat- 
form which  they  thought  was  broad  enough  for  all 
to  stand  upon ; namely,  “ The  fatherhood  of  God  and 
the  brotherhood  of  man,”  they  were  loudly  cheered. 
I have  many  friends  among  the  high-caste  gentlemen 
of  the  city  of  Balasore,  in  which  we  lived;  but  truth 
compels  me  to  say  that  they  know  practically  nothing 
of  the  principle  of  the  “ brotherhood  of  man.”  Caste 
and  that  principle  are  at  variance. 

The  reader  will  have  observed  that  I have  made 
no  attempt  to  define  Hinduism  philosophically.  I 
have  simply  told  of  a few  things  which  many  of  the 
Hindus  do. 

No  man  can  define  Hinduism,  not  even  the  priests 
or  pundits.  In  fact,  some  of  the  best-educated  Hindus 
claim  that  it  is  not  a religion  at  all,  but  rather  a social 
system.  Certain  it  is  that  a person  may  believe  what 
he  likes,  and  yet  be  a good  Hindu.  He  may  worship 
all  the  idols  in  their  system,  or  worship  none;  he  may 
be  a monotheist,  or  an  atheist,  or  even  a Christian  at 
heart,  and  yet  be  in  Hindu  society.  It  is  different  in 
different  places,  and  is  not  at  all  consistent  with  itself. 
It  is  even  contradictory.  But  these  things  do  not  trou- 
ble the  Hindu  mind  at  all.  He  can  believe  that  black  is 
white  and  that  white  is  black,  while  at  the  same  time 
each  retains  its  original  color.  Wherefore  attempt  to 
define  such  a system,  or  rather,  want  of  system  ? Caste 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


178 


is  its  essence.  Destroy  that  and  it  is  gone.  The  rea- 
son why  caste  is  the  essence  of  Hinduism  is  because 
the  Brahmins  are  the  highest  caste,  and  to  be  supreme 
is  more  than  all  else.  It  is  quite  possible  that  they 
attach  to  it  the  sanctity  of  religion  in  order  to  main- 
tain this  social  supremacy. 


CHAPTER  XV 


An  Outline  of  the  History  of  Protestant  Missions 

A GREAT  many  centuries  ago,  Syrian  Christians 
existed  along  the  Malabar  Coast  (northwest- 
ern coast  of  India).  When  Vasco  de  Gama,  a 
Portuguese  navigator,  went  to  India  early  in 
the  sixteenth  century,  he  found  these  Christians  with 
their  own  chieftain  and  their  own  distinct  government. 
They  were  in  no  way  connected  with  Hindu  rulers. 
To  this  day  they  have  their  priest,  and  bishop,  and 
Sunday  service,  and  liturgy,  such  as  the  Patriarch  of 
Antioch  used,  and  are  called,  wherever  known,  “ St. 
Thomas  Christians.”  The  Syriac  version  of  the 
Scriptures  was  brought  to  India  about  A.  D.  325. 

The  Portuguese  planted  a few  mission  stations  a 
number  of  centuries  ago,  and  in  1642  the  Dutch  be- 
gan work  in  Ceylon.  But  what  I wish  more  particu- 
larly to  speak  of  are  the  missionary  efforts  either 
within  the  past  century,  or  of  those  efforts  which  led 
to  the  activity  of  the  past  century  in  missionary  work 
by  Protestants. 

To  the  Danes  first  belongs  this  honor.  In  1705 
two  young  Germans,  Bartholomew  Ziegenbalg  and 
Henry  Plutschau,  were  sent  to  Tranquebar,  a city 
about  two  hundred  miles  south  of  Madras  (on  the 
southeast),  to  commence  mission  work  among  the 
Hindus.  These  men  were  scholars  and  devoted  to 

179 


180 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


their  work.  In  those  early  days  there  were  many  more 
difficulties  to  contend  with  than  there  are  now.  Often 
they  were  in  sore  need  of  money,  and  at  one  tifce  Zie- 
genbalg  was  imprisoned  for  four  months.  When  he 
came  out,  he  found  that  the  work  he  had  been  gather- 
ing up  to  that  time  was  all  broken  up.  But  though 
cast  down  he  was  not  destroyed,  and  with  character- 
istic energy  he  began  his  work  over  again.  Six  years 
after  his  arrival  in  the  country,  he  had  completed  a 
translation  of  the  New  Testament  into  the  Tamil  lan- 
guage. His  literary  and  evangelistic  labors  were  abun- 
dant, but  not  of  very  long  duration,  for  in  1719  he  died, 
mourned  by  three  hundred  and  fifty-five  Christians 
whom  he  had  rescued  from  heathenism.  The  same 
year  three  other  new  missionaries  came  and  joined 
the  mission,  among  whom  Schultz  received  the  mantle 
of  Ziegenbalg.  The  latter  had  translated  the  Old 
Testament  as  far  as  the  book  of  Ruth.  Schultz 
completed  it.  He  was  not  confined  to  Tamil,  but 
studied  other  languages,  and  translated  portions  of 
the  Bible  into  Telugu  and  Portuguese,  and  the  entire 
Bible  into  Hindustani.  He  began  work  in  Madras, 
and  extended  it  to  other  towns  with  a zeal  which  was 
consuming.  In  Madras,  after  fifteen  years  of  work, 
he  had  seven  hundred  Christian  persons  in  his  congre- 
gation, to  say  nothing  of  his  work  in  Tranquebar  (on 
the  coast  of  Madras)  and  elsewhere. 

July  30,  1750,  Christian  Friedrich  Schwartz  ar- 
rived in  India.  He  was  a man  of  deep  piety,  great 
zeal,  broad  education,  excellent  judgment,  humble 
spirit,  with  but  few  wants,  and  with  an  affectionate 


History  of  Protestant  Missions  181 


and  loving  nature.  It  is  no  wonder  that  the  people 
were  drawn  to  him.  The  natives  loved  and  revered 
him,  the  Hindu  king  of  Tanjore  (in  southern  India) 
appointed  him  as  guardian  to  his  adopted  son,  while 
the  British  government  appointed  him  arbitrator  be- 
tween itself  and  the  haughty  Hyder  Ali,  who  had  taken 
possession  of  the  kingdom  of  Mysore  and  was  spread- 
ing terror  in  every  direction.  “ Let  them,”  says 
Hyder,  “ send  me  the  Christian  Schwartz,  for  he  will 
not  deceive  me.”  The  Tanjore  mission  was  founded 
by  him,  and  mission  stations  all  along  the  line  were 
greatly  strengthened.  The  native  Christians  of  Tran- 
quebar,  Madras,  Cuddalore,  Trichinopoli,  and  Palum- 
cotta  numbered  fifty  thousand  when  Schwartz,  “ the 
apostle  of  India,”  in  the  year  1798,  after  forty-eight 
years  of  uninterrupted  service  in  the  mission  field, 
died. 

William  Carey  came  to  India  in  1793.  His  field  of 
labor  was  far  removed  from  that  of  Schwartz,  as  he 
came  at  once  to  Bengal.  It  cannot  be  said  that  he  was 
really  the  pioneer  in  mission  work  in  Calcutta,  for 
Kiernander,  a Dane,  had  preceded  him  and  had  met 
with  some  success.  But  the  coming  of  Carey  was  an 
important  event  in  the  history  of  Protestant  missions 
in  Bengal,  and  in  fact  in  all  India.  When  he  first 
proposed  to  his  brethren  in  England  the  plan  of  giving 
the  gospel  to  the  heathen,  he  met  with  but  little  sym- 
pathy. Still,  in  the  face  of  opposition,  he  succeeded  in 
organizing  the  Baptist  Mission  Society  in  1792,  and 
he  was  appointed  its  first  missionary.  Almost  from 
the  beginning  of  his  work  in  India,  he  met  with 


182 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


opposition  from  the  East  India  Company.  To  get  to 
India  at  all,  he  was  obliged  to  come  in  a Danish  ship, 
as  the  company  refused  him  passage  in  any  of  theirs. 
Upon  his  arrival  in  the  country,  he  at  once  began  the 
study  of  the  language,  but  as  the  receipts  of  the  so- 
ciety which  sent  him  out  were  very  small,  want  was 
staring  him  in  the  face.  He  went  to  the  Soonderbuns, 
and  thought  to  farm  some  and  at  the  same  time  in- 
struct the  people.  But  the  air  of  the  Soonderbuns  was 
poisoned  with  malaria,  and  he  was  obliged  to  go  else- 
where. He  accepted  a position  in  an  indigo  factory  in 
Malda  (about  midway  between  Calcutta  and  Darji- 
ling). He  remained  here  for  five  years,  and  during 
that  time  translated  the  New  Testament  into  Bengali, 
and  preached  a great  many  times.  In  1799  four  Eng- 
lish Baptist  missionaries  (Marshman,  Ward,  Bruns- 
don,  and  Grant)  arrived  in  Calcutta,  but  when  they  let 
their  object  be  known,  the  governor-general  determined 
to  send  them  back  to  England.  They  put  themselves 
under  the  protection  of  the  Danish  governor,  Colonel 
Bie,  at  Serampore  (near  Calcutta),  who  gave  them 
help  and  sympathy,  and  also  refused  to  surrender  them 
to  the  East  India  Company.  Carey  determined  to 
leave  his  work  at  the  indigo  factory  and  join  them. 
Thus  began  the  work  at  Serampore,  so  famous  in  the 
history  of  missions.  Here  the  missionaries  entered 
into  a compact  to  have  all  things  common,  and  after 
purchasing  a large  house  and  printing-press,  went 
heart  and  soul  into  that  work  which  has  made  their 
names  famous  in  history.  Their  time  was  occupied 
in  preaching  in  the  villages  and  streets,  printing  the 


History  of  Protestant  Missions 


183 


Bible  and  portions  of  it  in  Bengali,  answering  inqui- 
ries, and  explaining  the  Christian  religion  to  those 
who  came  to  the  house  to  hear.  Their  first  convert 
was  baptized  in  1800,  in  the  presence  of  a vast  con- 
course of  people,  and  in  the  following  year  they  com- 
pleted the  translation  of  the  Bible  in  Bengali.  Carey, 
on  account  of  his  linguistic  abilities,  was  appointed 
professor  of  Sanskrit,  Bengali,  and  Marathi  in  Fort 
William  College,  first  at  a salary  of  $3,000  a year, 
which  was  afterward  increased  to  $7,500  a year,  all 
of  which  was  thrown  into  the  common  fund  of  the 
“ Brotherhood  ” at  Serampore,  and  which  was  of  in- 
valuable help  to  them  in  their  work.  When  Carey 
began  his  lectures  in  Bengali  as  professor,  there 
was  not  a single  prose  work  existing  in  that  lan- 
guage. Now  there  are  thousands  of  volumes  flooding 
the  country. 

These  missionaries  set  the  noble  example  of  put- 
ting their  heel  on  the  head  of  the  serpent,  caste,  at 
the  very  beginning.  At  the  first  communion  service 
the  cup  was  given  to  a low-caste  man  before  it  was  to 
a Brahmin  convert. 

This  chapter  is  designed  to  be  no  more  than  a syn- 
opsis of  the  history  of  Protestant  missions  in  India. 
Sherring’s  history  will  give  the  reader  details  of  mis- 
sion work,  its  rise  and  development  in  different  sec- 
tions of  the  country,  and  the  different  fields  of  the 
different  societies. 

From  these  beginnings  the  work  has  extended,  and 
the  methods  these  early  missionaries  adopted  are  the 
methods,  with  variations,  in  use  at  the  present  day. 


184 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


From  time  to  time  other  societies,  both  from  England 
and  America,  have  planted  mission  stations  east,  west, 
north,  and  south,  until  there  is  at  the  present  time  a 
network  of  centers  from  Ceylon  in  the  south  to  the 
Punjab  in  the  north,  and  from  Assam  in  the  east  to 
the  river  Indus  in  the  west.  It  is  true,  vast  numbers 
have  no  intelligent  idea  of  Christianity,  and  millions 
have  no  idea  at  all  except  to  know  there  is  such  a 
religion,  but  the  centers  are  occupied  and  the  light  is 
radiating. 

We  have  no  statistics  of  an  earlier  date  than  1851. 
Then  there  were  91,092  Protestant  native  Christians 
in  India.  In  1881,  or  in  thirty  years,  they  had  increased 
to  417,372;  and  ten  years  later,  according  to  govern- 
ment statistics  of  1891,  to  559,661. 


NAME  OF  DENOMINATION. 

- 

Number  of  their 
Societies. 

Number  of  For- 
eign Ordained 
Agents. 

Number  of  Na- 
tive Agents, 
I and  Or- 

dained. 

Number  of  Na- 
tive Christians. 

Baptist  

10 

129 

640 

133.122 

Congregational  

2 

76 

666 

77,466 

Episcopal  

6 

203 

119 

193,363 

Presbyterian  

13 

149 

584 

34,395 

Lutheran  

7 

1 25 

4i3 

62,838 

Methodist  

3 

no 

6 77 

32,381 

Moravian  

3 

16 

23 

398 

Woman’*;  Societies  

A 

Supplement  

I 

Converts  not  connected  with  any 

of  the  above  societies 

150 

Total  

49 

808 

4122 

559.661 

Handling  logs  for  industrial-school  work,  S antipore , Bengal 


History  of  Protestant  Missions 


185 


It  would  be  very  interesting,  if  this  were  the  place 
for  it,  to  give  a brief  outline  of  the  forty-nine  societies 
now  operating  in  the  country, — tell  the  fields  they  oc- 
cupy, the  native  and  ordained  agents  of  each,  and  the 
Christian  communities  of  each.  We  will,  for  the  sake 
of  reference,  group  the  cognate  bodies  together,  re-  * 
gardless  of  the  countries  from  which  they  came,  and 
give  a summary  of  statistics.  The  statistics  of  this 
table  are  condensed  from  the  statistical  report  of  the 
Decennial  Missionary  Conference  of  India,  given  in 
1890. 

The  following  are  the  number  of  Protestant  mission 
societies  at  work  in  India:  in  1911,  Baptists,  8;  Con- 
gregationalists,  3 ; Church  of  England,  7;  Presbyterian, 
17;  Methodists,  5 ; Lutheran,  11 ; Disciples  of  Christ,  4; 
Friends,  2.  Aside  from  these,  there  are  fifty-four 
other  societies  at  work  along  the  same  lines,  as  Chris- 
tian Alliance,  Seventh-day  Adventists,  Pentecost  Mis- 
sion, Church  of  God,  Salvation  Army,  Y.  M.  C.  A., 
Y.  W.  C.  A.,  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  Tract 
Society,  etc. 

There  are  many  forms  of  work  besides  the  direct 
preaching  of  the  gospel,  as  hospitals,  sanitariums, 
theological  seminaries,  publishing  houses,  industrial 
schools,  training  homes,  homes  for  fallen  women, 
homes  for  the  blind,  schools  of  all  grades  for  general 
education,  etc. 

I herewith  submit  the  revised  and  up-to-date  Chris- 
tian statistics.  Compare  the  statistics  of  twenty  years 
ago  with  these  figures.  These  are  from  the  cen- 
sus report,  1909-1910:  Roman  Catholics,  1,065,725; 


186 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


Romo-Syrians,  333,040;  Anglican,  296,034;  Jacobite- 
Syrian,  242,210;  Baptists,  222,026;  Lutheran,  159,- 
858;  Methodists,  66,602;  Presbyterians,  39,964; 
others,  248,854;  total,  2,664,313. 

Of  this  number,  it  will  be  seen  by  subtracting  the 
Roman  Catholic  communicants  there  is  remaining  1,- 
265,548  Protestants.  Twenty  years  ago  there  were 
559,661.  Nearly  three  hundred  per  cent  in  twenty 
years.  And  this  numerical  increase  does  not  tell  half 
the  story.  The  way  has  been  prepared,  the  field  is 
white,  and  reapers  may  gather  a golden  harvest.  Vil- 
lage after  village  is  ready  to  accept  Christianity. 

Workers,  reapers  is  the  need  of  the  hour. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

Mission  Work  and  How  Carried  On 

DURING  the  time  I have  been  in  India,  I have 
had  the  privilege  of  visiting  a number  of  mis- 
sion fields  besides  our  own,  and  have  also  had 
an  opportunity  of  observing  their  methods  of 
work.  I find  that  most  mission  societies  work  along 
on  about  the  same  lines,  so  when  I speak  of  our  work, 
and  perhaps  of  some  personal  experiences,  they  may 
be  taken  as  representative  of  mission  work  in  general 
so  far  as  methods  are  concerned. 

Places  where  mission  work  is  established  are  called 
either  “ stations  ” or  “ outstations.”  A station  is  the 
place  where  one  or  more  missionaries  live ; where  there 
is  a Christian  church,  and  usually  more  or  less  of  other 
lines  of  work.  An  outstation  is  a place  connected 
with  the  station;  i.  e.,  under  charge  of  one  of  the  mis- 
sionaries of  the  station.  There  may  or  may  not  be 
a branch  church  or  a school.  There  are  lines  of  work 
in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  place  and  its  impor- 
tance. In  nearly  all  of  the  larger  stations  there  is  a 
native  pastor  as  assistant  to  the  missionary  pastor. 
He  is  ordinarily  a faithful  and  competent  man,  except 
that,  as  a rule,  he  lacks  executive  ability.  In  the 
church  the  services  are  conducted,  upon  the  whole, 
about  the  same  as  they  are  in  their  respective  denomi- 
nations at  home.  In  some  of  our  churches  all  the 

187 


188 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


people  sit  on  the  floor  on  grass  mats,  while  in  others 
the  women  sit  on  the  floor,  and  the  men  and  boys  on 
chairs  and  benches ; while  in  still  others,  and  especially 
in  the  large  cities,  all  sit  in  chairs  or  pews.  In  our 
own  mission  the  great  majority  of  the  people  in  our 
churches  sit  on  the  floor.  This  is  the  way  they  sit  in 
their  houses,  so  they  prefer  it  to  any  other  position. 

The  service  is  conducted  in  the  vernacular  language 
of  the  place.  There  are  one  hundred  and  twenty  lan- 
guages and  dialects  in  India,  so  there  are  that  many 
languages,  or  nearly  as  many,  used  in  the  services  of 
the  churches.  In  our  mission  there  are  four  Indian 
languages  besides  the  English  used.  The  two  princi- 
pal languages  are  those  derived  directly  from  the  San- 
skrit, and  these,  therefore,  are  very  similar;  namely, 
Bengali  and  Oriya.  Hindustani  is  a language  which 
is  generally  understood  by  the  better-educated  natives 
all  over  India.  This  is  used  at  times,  and  especially  in 
preaching  to  up-country  pilgrims.  The  fourth  is  the 
Santali,  and  entirely  unlike  these  other  three.  It  be- 
longs to  another  family  of  languages  entirely,  as  the 
Santals  were  among  the  aborigines  of  the  country, 
hundreds  of  years  before  the  Sanskrit  came  into  India. 

Our  churches  are  built  either  of  brick  or  mud,  like 
buildings  described  in  a previous  chapter.  The  win- 
dows are  of  plain  glass,  if  there  are  any  glass  windows. 
More  often  there  is  nothing  in  the  windows  but  heavy, 
strong  shutters.  The  seats  are  not  upholstered,  and 
the  floor  is  not  carpeted,  save  at  times  with  grass  mat- 
ting or  large  coarse  cloth  spreads.  In  country  churches 
usually  a temporary  mat  is  spread  just  for  that 


Mission  Work  and  How  Carried  On  / 89 


particular  service.  The  worshipers,  as  a rule,  come 
dressed  in  clean  white  cotton  clothes.  There  is  some 
exception,  but  only  enough  to  make  a pleasing  variety. 
Some  of  the  women  may  have  on  yellow  or  purple  silk, 
and  some  of  the  children  bright  red.  A few  of  the 
more  wealthy  men  may  have  on  a black  or  tussur-silk 
chapkan.1  Those  wearing  the  latter  garment  will 
have  on  pantaloons,  while  the  greater  number  wear 
the  dhute.2  The  cloth  of  the  women,  whether  it  be 
pure  white  with  a border  of  some  bright  color,  or  silk, 
is  the  sari.3  The  women  have  some  jewelry  on  their 
wrists  and  fingers,  and  if  vain  and  of  means  may  have 
a heavy  silver  chain  around  the  hips. 

Let  us  stand,  if  you  please,  at  the  gate  in  front  of 
the  church  as  the  last  bell  on  a Lord’s  Day  morning  is 
calling  the  people  to  worship.  See  them  come  from 
their  homes  and  file  along  the  narrow  streets  of 
their  villages.  Watch  them  as  they  enter  the  church, 
until  it  is  nearly  or  quite  full.  Let  us  go  in  ourselves 
and  look  around.  Here  are  the  men  and  boys  on  one 
side,  and  the  women  and  girls  on  the  other.  Perhaps 
we  are  surprised  to  see  them  so  separated,  but  we  must 
remember  that  among  the  Hindus  the  men  and  the  wo- 
men do  not  sit  together,  nor  eat  together,  nor  walk 
along  the  street  together.  If  a man  and  his  wife  are 
traveling  together,  he  usually  walks  before  her  carrying 
an  umbrella  over  his  head,  while  she  comes  behind.  If 
there  is  a baby  to  carry,  she  has  it.  Our  native  Chris- 

1 A long  coat  worn  by  the  native  men. 

8 A cloth  five  yards  long  which  is  wound  around  the  loins  and  covers  the  legs  to 
some  extent. 

8 A cloth  five  yards  long  wound  around  the  body,  and  coming  over  the  head. 


190 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


tians  cannot  in  a single  generation  cast  all  their  prej- 
udices behind  them,  and  sit  with  their  women  folks 
on  the  floor.  They  are  learning  more  and  more  the 
true  relationship  of  the  family.  A generation  hence 
we  shall  probably  see  them  all  sitting  together,  but  now 
we  do  not. 

We  shall  see  behind  the  desk  the  dark-faced  preacher, 
and  hear  him  read  from  the  same  book  we  hear  read 
in  this  country.  Its  precepts  and  promises  find  the 
same  echo  in  hearts  there  as  here,  for  like  temptations 
and  burdens  come  to  them.  He  lifts  his  heart  and 
voice  to  the  same  God  for  a blessing  upon  his  flock. 
He  prays  for  himself,  that  he  may  be  able  to  speak  the 
word  in  plainness  and  in  love,  and  with  the  fulness  of 
the  Spirit.  He  reads  a hymn.  It  may  be  a transla- 
tion from  an  English  hymn,  or  written  by  one  of  the 
native  hymn  writers.  I may  say  in  passing  that  some 
of  our  native  Christians  are  excellent  hymn  writers. 
It  was  Chrishna  Pal,  Carey’s  first  convert,  who  wrote 
the  hymn  beginning  with  this  verse : 

O thou,  my  soul,  forget  no  more, 

The  Friend  who  all  thy  sorrows  bore; 

Let  every  idol  be  forgot, 

But,  O my  soul,  forget  him  not! 

The  congregation  all  join  in  singing  the  hymn.  We 
are  not  used  to  their  music,  so  it  may  sound  discordant 
to  us,  and  at  times  there  is  discord;  but  after  we  get 
used  to  their  singing  we  rather  enjoy  it.  The  minister 
announces  his  text  and  preaches  a sermon,  good,  bad, 
or  indifferent,  the  same  as  we  may  hear  in  America. 
Usually,  however,  they  preach  with  eloquence  and 


Mission  W ork  and  How  Carried  On  191 


fervor.  It  would  not  always  happen  that  the  native 
pastor  would  be  preaching.  If  the  missionary  pastor 
were  in  the  station,  he  might  be  preaching.  If  we 
would  realize  the  benefits  Christianity  has  conferred  on 
these  people,  contrast  their  appearance  and  character 
with  Hindus  of  the  same  social  grade.  jr/V  P . 

There  are  those  among  English  officials  who  de- 
nounce missionary  effort  and  native  Christians.  I 
have  seen  some  such.  The  trouble  is  they  have  not 
been  looking  for  the  best  types.  The  story  is  told  of 
one  such  going  home  to  England.  On  the  ship  was 
also  a missionary  returning.  The  official  was  not  slow 
in  denouncing  the  native  Christians.  “ In  fact,”  said 
he,  “ I have  never  seen  a genuine  native  Christian.” 

He  had  been  a great  sportsman,  and  talked  often  of  his 
tiger  hunts  and  the  number  he  had  shot.  The  mission- 
ary said  to  him  one  day,  “ I have  been  in  India  twenty 
years,  and  have  never  seen  a tiger.  You  say  you  have 
seen  many.  You  have  been  in  India  five  years,  and 
you  say  you  have  never  seen  a native  Christian.  I 
have  seen  many.  You  have  been  looking  for  tigers, 
and  I for  Christians.  We  have  both  found  what  we 
have  been  looking  for.” 

All  our  native  Christians  are  not  faithful.  Some- 
times they  do  not  come  to  the  prayer  meetings  and 
other  social  meetings  of  the  church.  There  are  some 
who  quarrel,  and  it  is  not  impossible  to  find  those 
who  will  cheat  and  even  lie.  I have  heard  of  such 
things  in  churches  in  America,  where  for  all  our  lives 
through  we  have  been  taught  of  Christ  and  his  pre- 
cepts, and  where  good  influences  instead  of  evil  have 

N 


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India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


surrounded  us.  But  while  there  are  the  unfaithful, 
there  are  also  the  faithful  ones.  There  are  those  who 
will  suffer  as  much  persecution,  and  endure  as  many 
hardships,  and  are  as  abundant  in  labor,  as  those  of 
any  land  or  in  any  age. 

In  every  station  there  are  more  or  less  schools  to 
be  looked  after.  There  is  no  such  thing  as  co-educa- 
tion, except  with  very  small  children;  therefore  the 
Christian  boys’  schools  and  girls’  schools  are  separate 
institutions.  There  is  a secretary  for  each.  There 
may  be  a separate  one  for  each,  or  one  person  can  be 
secretary  for  both.  The  secretary  is  the  important  of- 
ficial in  a school  there.  He  has  the  financial  responsi- 
bility, pays  the  teachers,  collects  the  fees  and  fines, 
makes  returns  monthly  to  the  government  of  attend- 
ance and  receipts  from  all  sources,  etc. 

The  government  is  liberal  in  its  grants  to  mission 
schools,  and  is  deserving  of  the  thanks  of  all  mission- 
aries. In  consideration  of  these  grants,  it  reserves  the 
right  to  inspect  schools  and  prescribe  text-books.  It 
is  better  for  the  schools  that  they  should  be  subject  to 
government  inspection,  for  the  teachers  do  better  work, 
and  the  pupils  have  a better  standing.  There  is  quite 
a large  range  of  text-books,  so  that  suitable  ones  can 
be  had.  I can  say,  after  having  been  secretary  of  a 
number  of  schools  for  many  years,  that  I never  suf- 
fered inconvenience  nor  had  my  plans  thwarted  by 
government  interference.  In  our  Christian  boys’ 
schools  there  are  always  Hindu  and  Mohammedan  boys 
as  well  as  Christian  boys.  Every  morning  our  school 
was  opened  with  the  reading  of  the  Bible,  singing,  and 


Mission  Work  and  How  Carried  On  / 93 


prayer.  We  cannot  compel  Hindu  or  Mohammedan 
boys  to  be  present  at  these,  but  as  a matter  of  fact, 
they  are  generally  there,  and  frequently  take  part  in 
these  exercises.  The  last  year  we  were  in  Balasore, 
a Hindu  boy  took  the  first  prize  for  proficiency  in 
Bible  study. 

We  aim  to  put  Christian  teachers  in  these  schools 
as  far  as  possible,  but  it  often  happens  that  we  can  get 
a better  teacher  among  the  Hindus  than  we  can  avail- 
able men  in  our  Christian  community.  There  is  a vast 
difference  between  putting  a Hindu  teacher  in  one  of 
our  Hindu  schools,  and  putting  a Hindu  teacher  in 
a Christian  school  under  missionary  supervision.  A 
Hindu  teacher  in  these  little  Hindu  schools  may  in  five 
minutes  after  the  missionary  has  left  the  school  (after 
inspection)  counteract  anything  he  may  have  said  by 
explaining  it  away,  or  making  it  apply  to  their  religion. 
In  a Christian  school  it  is  very  different.  The  teacher’s 
work  there  is  not  to  teach  religion,  but  secular  branches 
of  study.  He  in  no  way  interferes  with  the  religion 
of  his  pupils.  If  he  is  a Hindu  and  should  speak 
against  the  Christian  religion,  there  would  be  any 
number  of  boys  to  report  him.  He  would  not  jeopard- 
ize his  position  by  doing  so.  Besides,  the  Christian 
boys  in  the  school  have  other  Christian  influences 
thrown  about  them  in  the  home,  and  Sunday-school, 
and  church.  To  teach  the  principles  of  Christianity  is 
not  the  object  of  the  school.  The  object  is  to  give  the 
boys  a good  education,  and  for  this  purpose  a good 
teacher  is  necessary.  I would  say  that  we  should  put 
the  best  teachers  we  can  get  in  our  Christian  schools, 


194 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


but  put  only  Christian  teachers  in  our  little  Hindu 
schools.  The  object  desired  must  govern  our  action. 

Almost  every  missionary  must  spend  from  one  to 
three  or  four  hours  a day  at  his  writing-desk.  He 
has  quite  an  army  of  Christian  workers,  and  with  each 
of  these  he  must  keep  an  account.  If  he  is  a secretary 
of  a school,  he  has  all  reports  to  look  after  and  make 
out  for  the  government,  and  to  keep  the  school  ac- 
counts. He  must  make  out  his  estimates  for  his  work 
for  the  home  society,  and  his  report  to  it.  He  has 
many  personal  correspondents.  From  all  over  the 
home  land,  more  or  less,  there  are  coming  requests  for 
something  to  read  at  the  mission  society  or  the  yearly 
conference.  The  editors  of  our  papers  and  magazines 
say  sometimes,  and,  in  fact,  often,  “ Write  us  more 
articles.”  Then,  in  addition  to  this,  many  missionaries 
do  a great  deal  of  literary  work.  School  books  are 
written,  and  tracts  of  different  kinds  in  the  vernacular, 
and  translations  are  made  from  English  books.  When 
we  remember  that  when  Carey  began  his  work  in 
India,  a century  ago,  there  was  not  a single  prose  work 
in  Bengal  in  the  vernacular,  and  no  literature  of  a 
pure  character  at  all,  and  that  now  the  Bible  has  been 
translated  into  almost  every  dialect,  and  thousands  of 
books  and  tracts  can  be  had,  we  can  see  that  somebody 
has  done  something  in  the  literary  line.  Then  also  the 
missionary  has  contributed  to  the  literature  of  the 
world  by  giving  us  works  on  science,  philosophy,  re- 
ligion, etc.,  of  not  only  India,  but  all  other  countries 
into  which  he  has  gone. 

In  almost  every  large  station  there  is  some  attempt 


Thatching  a bungalow 


A typical  sawmill 


Mission  Work  and  How  Carried  On  1 95 


, to  teach  the  Christian  boys  and  girls  some  useful  trade. 
These  industrial  schools,  or  an  industrial  department 
to  the  day-schools,  are  becoming  a necessity.  The 
government  is  also  seeing  this,  and  offering  very 
liberal  grants  to  efficient  schools  of  this  kind.  These 
are  especially  needed  in  Christian  communities,  for 
| we  want  Christian  artisans  as  well  as  teachers  and 
preachers.  Every  preacher  and  teacher  ought  to 
know  how  to  do  something  more  than  simply  to  preach 
and  to  teach.  If  the  people  can  get  hold  of  this  idea, 
a long  step  will  be  made  toward  India’s  redemption. 
The  people  have  been  in  the  habit  of  thinking  that  if 
a man  is  a clerk  or  a teacher,  he  must  not  soil  his 
hands  with  manual  labor.  As  a result,  there  are  thou- 
| sands  with  a good  education  who  have  no  employment, 
and  are  of  no  use  to  society.  The  aim  in  establishing 
these  industrial  schools  is  not  only  to  teach  a useful 
trade,  but  to  teach  that  manual  labor,  even  for  a 
preacher  or  a teacher,  is  far  more  honorable  than  idle- 
ness. 

Nearly  all  missions  have  schools  of  a higher  grade, 
and  some  have  theological  seminaries  and  colleges. 
Missions  need  the  best-trained  men  they  can  get. 
Hinduism  has  able  scholars,  and  Christianity  must 
be  able  to  put  men  of  intellect  in  the  field.  It  is  still 
the  “ foolishness  of  preaching,”  but  the  preaching  of 
such  men  as  Paul  had  a wonderful  influence  on  the 
heathen  mind.  Through  the  schools  of  various  grades 
our  native  Christians  are  pushing  their  way  to  the 
front  very  fast.  In  proportion  to  their  numbers,  they 
are  outstripping  all  others  in  government  examinations. 


196 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


Through  the  law  of  the  “ survival  of  the  fittest,” 
Christianity  must  make  its  way.  But  we  are  not  to 
conquer  by  that  slow  and  natural  process,  but  by  the 
might  of  God’s  Spirit.  A prominent  place  is  given  to 
Sunday-school  work,  young  people’s  meetings,  temper- 
ance societies,  meetings  for  mothers,  teachers’  meet- 
ings, etc.  No  effort  is  being  spared  to  put  our  Chris- 
tians on  a higher  plane  intellectually  and  spiritually. 

Aside  from  the  work  for  our  native  Christians,  a 
great  many  kinds  of  work  are  being  carried  on  for  the 
conversion  of  the  heathen.  There  are  schools  for 
poor  Hindu  children  here  and  there  throughout  the 
cities  and  towns.  These  are  called  “ ragged  schools,” 
but  really  they  should  be  called  naked  schools;  for,  as 
a matter  of  fact,  many  of  the  children  come  naked,  or 
nearly  so.  You  may  find  these  schools  in  various 
places, — sometimes  under  the  spreading  limbs  of  a 
banyan  tree,  sometimes  on  the  veranda  of  a house,  and 
sometimes  in  a house  built  on  purpose  for  them.  The 
teacher  may  be  a Christian  man  or  woman,  or  a Hindu. 
These  schools  are,  as  a rule,  under  the  supervision  of 
some  lady  missionary,  and  she  visits  them  as  often  as 
possible  to  inspect  the  work  being  done,  and  teach  Bible 
verses  and  stories  and  the  catechism. 

The  great  event  in  the  year  with  the  children  of 
these  schools  is  the  annual  distribution  of  presents. 
Friends  from  England  and  America  send  out  dolls, 
patchwork,  and  various  other  things,  so  that  this  occa- 
sion is  made  possible.  Some  lady  of  the  station  pre- 
sides to  distribute  the  presents,  and  the  superintendent 
reads  out  the  names.  When  Phulmani,  Malati,  Sun- 


Zenana  teachers  starting  for  zvorlc 


Mission  Work,  and  How  Carried  On  197 


dari,  Haramani,  and  many  other  similar  names  are 
called  off,  the  possessor  goes  forward  to  receive  her 
present.  It  is  almost  needless  to  say  that  on  such  oc- 
casions they  are  dressed  in  the  best  the  house  can  af- 
ford. When  they  receive  their  presents,  each  makes 
a low  bow,  which  is  about  the  only  demonstration 
observed. 

The  work  of  the  zenana  teacher  is  important.  A 
glance  at  the  life  of  thesTwomen  and  their  homes  will, 
I think,  convince  us  of  this.  The  zenana  in  Bengal  is 
the  home  of  the  high-caste  women.  These  women  are 
married  even  before  they  are  women.  At  the  tender 
age  of  eleven  or  twelve  years  they  go  to  live  with  their 
husbands,  whom  they  may  never  have  seen  before,  and 
in  the  selection  of  whom  they  have  had  no  choice. 
This  is  done  by  the  parents.  The  time  for  the  wedding 
is  when  the  village  astrologer  says  the  sun,  moon,  and 
stars  are  auspicious.  It  is  a great  time  in  the  home  of 
the  bride  the  day  she  is  married,  for  all  the  relatives 
and  friends  must  be  feasted,  and  the  air  is  filled  with 
the  music  of  the  village  band,  and  garlands  of  flowers 
adorn  the  house  and  premises.  But  it  seems  to  us 
that  the  happy  days  must  be  over  when  the  marriage 
ceremony  is  over;  for  the  little  girl-wife  is  put  in  a 
palky 4 and  carried  to  the  home  of  her  husband’s 
father,  which  to  her  is  a strange  house.  Here  she  is 
placed  under  the  care  of  her  mother-in-law,  who  may 
treat  her  kindly  or  who  may  not.  If  we  can  believe 
half  we  hear,  the  latter  is  more  likely  to  be  her  lot. 

4 A long  box  with  poles  at  each  end  and  with  doors  at  the  sides,  by  means  of 
which  people  are  carried  on  the  shoulders  of  men. 


198 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


Her  husband  stands  by  his  mother  rather  than  by  his 
wife,  so  is  it  any  wonder  that  many  days  and  nights 
are  spent  in  loneliness  and  crying?  Not  only  is  there 
but  little  joy  in  the  home,  but  she  is  shut  out  from  all 
the  beauties  of  the  outside  world,  for  she  is  a prisoner 
now  for  life.  The  house  may  have  a number  of  win- 
dows, but  they  are  high  and  barred,  and  there  is  but 
one  outside  door,  which  she  must  never  approach. 
From  the  court  in  the  center  she  can  see  some  grass 
and  flowers  which  may  be  growing  in  it,  and  always 
the  sky  overhead,  but  that  is  all.  If  she  ever  returns 
to  see  her  mother’s  home,  it  must  be  in  this  same  palky, 
with  a colored  cloth  tied  closely  over  it  so  that  she 
cannot  even  look  out. 

Until  recently  none  of  these  women  could  even  read 
or  write,  as  the  Hindus  did  not  think  it  necessary  to 
educate  girls.  Our  lady  missionaries  wanted  to  enter 
these  homes,  and  a way  was  opened  through  the  desire 
of  the  native  gentlemen  to  have  their  wives  learn  fancy 
work.  Mrs.  Mullins,  of  Calcutta,  was  the  first  to  gain 
access  to  these  prison  homes  by  agreeing  to  teach  the 
babu’s  wife  how  to  make  embroidered  slippers,  with 
the  privilege  of  teaching  her  at  the  same  time  to  read 
the  Bible.  That  was  the  key  which  unlocked  the  door, 
and  it  has  remained  open  ever  since. 

If  you  were  in  a mission  station  at  Midnapore  or 
Balasore,  you  would  see  each  morning  either  a large 
covered  wagon,  or  a number  of  native  carts,  coming  to 
the  home  of  the  superintendent,  and  from  here  start 
to  the  bazaars.  Either  all  the  native  Christian  women 
teachers  would  congregate  here  or  at  some  point  on 


Mission  Work  and  How  Carried  On  199 


the  road,  where  they  could  be  taken  up.  In  these  con- 
veyances they  are  taken  down  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
zenanas,  where  they  separate,  going  two  by  two  into 
the  houses.  They  teach  the  women  to  read,  write,  sew, 
and  embroider.  They  must  learn  to  read  before  you 
can  put  good  books  into  their  hands.  The  object  of 
this  work  is  not  only  to  brighten  their  lives  for  to-day, 
but  to  open  the  door  of  their  hearts  for  the  entering  in 
of  the  Light  which  will  help  to  brighten  their  lives  all 
through  the  years  to  come. 

Each  morning  also  you  might  see  the  superintend- 
ent starting  off  on  her  rounds  to  visit  these  same 
houses.  She  must  see  that  faithful  work  is  being  done 
by  the  teachers,  and  look  to  the  progress  of  the  pupils 
in  secular  and  religious  knowledge.  This  is  her  op- 
portunity really  to  accomplish  the  work  which  is  up- 
permost in  her  heart — the  bringing  of  her  pupils  to 
Christ. 

Another  part  of  the  work  is  the  sending  out  of 
Bible  women.  These  women  are  lay  preachers  really, 
and  go  from  house  to  house  just  as  the  zenana  teachers 
do,  only  they  do  not  go  so  much  to  the  homes  of  the 
rich,  and  their  work  is  not  to  teach  reading  and  wri- 
ting, but  to  evangelize.  They  sit  upon  the  verandas, 
or;  in  the  rooms,  and  read  the  Bible,  sing  hymns,  talk, 
and  pray  with  the  women  who  gather  around  them. 
They  find  many  sad  lives,  but  are  sometimes  able  to 
inspire  hope  by  telling  the  story  of  Christ’s  life,  and 
what  he  came  to  do  for  those  who  accept  him. 

Connected  with  almost  every  mission  is  at  least 
one  orphanage  for  both  boys  and  girls.  These  of 


200 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


course  are  separate,  and  the  girls’  are  generally  the 
fullest,  as  people  will  always  part  with  their  girls  first. 
These  are  filled  from  various  sources.  Sometimes  the 
mother  dies,  and  the  father  cannot  care  for  all  the 
family.  Sometimes  both  die,  and  the  children  either 
hear  of  these  homes  for  the  homeless,  and  wander  to 
them  themselves,  or  some  one  brings  them.  Some- 
times the  police  find  a child  by  the  wayside.  In  this 
way  they  come,  and  are  provided  with  a home,  and  are 
cared  for  and  educated.  Some  of  our  best  workers 
come  from  these  homes. 

Bazaar  preaching  is  also  carried  on  in  all  the  larger 
stations.  The  bazaar,  we  must  remember,  is  the  busi- 
ness part  of  a town,  so  bazaar  preaching  is  simply 
street  preaching.  This  work  is  always  done  in  the 
evening,  and  for  two  reasons.  One  is,  it  is  cooler,  and 
we  can  work  with  no  fear  of  the  sun ; and  the  other  is, 
we  can  meet  the  people.  The  principal  meal  of  the 
day  is  eaten  just  before  the  people  retire  at  night,  and 
they  come  to  the  bazaar  to  buy  food  for  this  meal  and 
for  the  following  day’s  dinner.  This  is  why  we  can  find 
people  in  the  evening.  There  are  also,  in  larger  sta- 
tions, rest-houses  for  pilgrims  where,  for  a few  cents, 
they  may  cook  and  eat  and  rest  for  the  night,  or  even 
at  times  for  a few  days.  We  may,  therefore,  always 
meet  more  or  less  of  these  at  our  preaching  stand. 

The  question  has  often  been  asked  me,  “ How  do 
you  conduct  bazaar  preaching?  ” In  the  station  in 
which  we  lived,  Balasore,  there  were  two  principal 
bazaars,  and  in  each  of  these  we  had  a preaching  stand. 
These  stands  were  simply  platforms  of  brickwork,  and 


Mission  Work  and  How  Carried  On  201 


situated  in  the  most  public  places  in  the  bazaars.  At 
about  six  o’clock  I would  meet  one  or  two  of  the 
native  preachers  at  one  or  the  other  of  these  stands. 
We  might  have  with  us  a man  to  sell  tracts,  or  we 
might  ourselves  have  some.  We  would  begin  by  sing- 
ing a hymn,  or  playing  upon  some  instrument.  The  ~ 
music  would  attract  the  people,  and  from  the  shops 
near-by  or  the  market  square  they  would  begin  to 
gather  around  the  stand.  It  might  be  pilgrims  would  be 
passing,  and  hearing  the  singing  would  stop.  When 
the  singing  was  over,  we  might  offer  a short  prayer, 
or  read  a few  passages  of  Scripture,  or  proceed  at  once 
to  address  the  people.  We  must  always  bear  in  mind 
that  we  are  preaching  to  people  who  know  but  little, 
and  often  nothing,  of  the  Christian  religion,  therefore 
our  preaching  must  be  simple  and  explanatory  as  a 
rule.  If  it  would  attract  attention,  it  must  abound  with 
illustrations.  This  might  serve  as  one : “ Midnapore 
is  north  of  us,  and  Cuttack  is  south.  If  you  were  walk- 
ing south  and  wanted  to  go  to  Midnapore,  what  would 
you  do?”  The  answer  would  come  back  from  the 
crowd,  “ Turn  around  and  go  in  the  other  direction.” 
Then  you  apply  your  illustration : “ Heaven  is  a pure 
place,  and  God  is  pure,  but  if  you  are  walking  in  sin 
you  are  going  away  from  this  pure  place.  What  must 
you  do  to  go  to  heaven?”  “Turn  around.”  Then 
we  may  tell  them  of  Christ,  who  is  the  way  to  the 
Father.  Simple  Bible  illustrations  and  parables  are 
always  profitable.  The  story  of  the  Prodigal  Son  al- 
ways arrests  their  attention.  Personal  experiences  are 
good;  and  especially  if  some  self-righteous,  conceited 


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India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


young  Brahmin  wants  to  argue.  Tell  the  people  how 
your  life,  your  hopes,  your  ambitions,  your  desires, 
have  all  been  changed.  Tell  them  how,  by  accepting 
Christ,  he  has  saved  you  from  the  love  of  sin,  from  the 
guilt  of  sin,  and  from  the  power  of  the  Evil  One.  Now 
you  may  say,  “ Here  is  a young  man  who  says  Hindu- 
ism is  as  good  as  any  religion.  Let  him  get  up  on  the 
platform  and  tell  you  how  it  has  saved  him  from  a 
sinful  life,  and  changed  the  current  of  his  life  entirely.” 
Of  course  he  has  no  experience  of  that  kind,  and 
usually  he  has  nothing  more  to  say. 

We  do  not  always  have  an  orderly  crowd.  There 
may  be  lepers  there,  who  have  business  in  view.  They 
catch  your  eye,  and  reach  out  their  distorted  hands  for 
a little  money.  Some  man  wants  to  sell  a cow  or  a 
goat  by  auction,  and  thinks  that  crowd  would  be  a 
good  one  to  bid.  You  must  tell  him  that  for  the  time 
being  this  is  a preaching  stand,  but  when  you  leave  he 
can  use  it  to  auction  off  his  cow. 

Some  young  men  from  the  college  who  are  studying 
English  may  want  to  tell  what  they  have  learned 
against  Christianity  from  Ingersoll’s  or  some  other 
infidel  works.  Brahmin  priests  may  be  there  to  oppose. 
Their  craft  is  in  danger,  and  they  must  not  sit  quietly 
by  and  see  it  destroyed.  Pilgrims  are  there.  These 
have  gone  long  journeys,  seeking  rest  and  freedom, 
and  are  weary  and  heavy-laden  both  with  a sense  of 
their  need  and  the  fatigue  of  the  way.  To  invite  such 
unto  the  One  who  said,  “ Come  unto  me,  all  ye  that 
labor  and  are  heavy-laden,  and  I will  give  you  rest," 
is  a blessed  privilege.  Sometimes  they  come.  All  the 


Mission  Work  and  How  Carried  On  203 


seed  sown  is  not  sown  on  good  ground,  neither  is  it  all 
wasted.  As  in  the  parable  of  the  Sower,  so  it  is  here. 
I have  known  of  a number  of  conversions  as  the  result 
of  bazaar  preaching. 

In  many  respects  country  work  is  the  most  enjoyable 
and  inspiring  of  any  work  the  missionary  has  to  do. 
As  a rule,  it  is  carried  on  in  the  cold  season.  We  al- 
ready know  what  this  is  like.  The  telling  of  our  mes- 
sage to  those  who  have  never  heard  it  adds  new  in- 
terest to  the  work.  “How  is  it  conducted?  Tell  us 
all  about  it,”  are  questions  I have  to  answer  often. 
When  the  rains  are  over,  and  the  fields  are  dry,  we 
overhaul  our  tents  and  put  them  in  order,  look  over 
our  books  and  tracts  and  order  more  if  necessary,  see 
what  food  supplies  we  have,  and  notify  our  native 
workers  when  we  are  going  to  start. 

Our  carts  are  secured  for  a month,  and  are  brought 
to  the  house  to  be  loaded.  Our  tent-poles  are  tied 
under  the  cart,  and  a stretcher  or  cot-bed  put  on  the 
cover.  Inside  we  put  bedding,  tents,  books,  food,  and 
water,  a change  or  two  of  clothes  for  ourselves,  and 
many  other  things.  Two  or  three  lanterns,  and  as 
many  bottles  of  kerosene  oil  will  be  tied  to  the  slats  of 
the  cover.  Each  of  the  native  brethren  has  a box,  with 
a blanket  and  a shawl  tied  on  the  top  of  it,  which  he 
wishes  to  put  in  some  place.  With  difficulty  you  find 
a place  for  these.  The  man  who  drives  the  bullocks 
has  a bundle  of  wood  to  cook  the  bullocks’  food  (and 
his  own),  an  old  oil  tin  in  which  to  boil  it,  a box,  and  a 
bundle  of  straw.  We  readjust  and  get  these  in  or  on. 
“Are  we  ready  to  start?”  No;  here  comes  the  cook 


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India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


with  a box  of  cooking  utensils,  six  chickens  tied  to- 
gether by  the  legs,  and  his  own  box.  We  offer  a silent 
prayer  for  more  grace  and  patience,  and  with  strings 
and  twisted  straw  get  these  disposed  of.  “ Now  hitch 
on  your  bullocks,  and  let  us  be  off  quickly,  for  it  is 
getting  very  late.”  Then  the  cartman  comes  and 
asks  for  a little  oil  to  grease  his  cart.  “ Have  you  not 
greased  your  cart  yet?  Why  did  you  not  grease  it 
before  you  loaded  it?  ” The  question  may  have  just  a 
little  of  an  impatient  sound  in  it,  if  we  are  not  careful, 
but  we  proceed  to  get  the  oil ; for  he  tells  us,  “ In  this 
country  it  is  the  custom  to  grease  carts  after  they  are 
loaded.”  We  get  two  or  three  men  to  help,  the 
cart  is  greased,  the  driver  lifts  up  the  yoke,  and  tells 
the  bullocks  to  walk  under  their  burden;  he  gets 
astride  the  tongue,  gives  each  one  a blow,  and  we 
are  really  off. 

The  objective  point  is  at  first  some  bungalow,  or  a 
village  where  there  is  none.  If  the  latter,  we  find  some 
shady  knoll  if  we  can,  and  here  we  pitch  our  tent  and 
make  ourselves  as  comfortable  as  possible.  Our  native 
brethren  have  a tent  close  beside  ours.  Before  retiring 
we  ask  them  into  our  tent,  read  a portion  of  the  word, 
and  each  joins  in  prayer  and  asks  God’s  blessing  upon 
us  and  the  work  we  are  to  do  in  the  village.  We  get 
in  our  cot,  and  tuck  our  mosquito  netting  as  carefully 
around  us  as  possible,  for  we  do  not  want  any  stray 
centipede  or  scorpion  as  a bedfellow.  We  do  not  fall 
asleep  at  once,  for  there  are  many  sounds  outside  the 
tent.  The  jackal,  which  has  a keen  scent  for  good 
things  to  eat,  has  come  a mile  to  get  a bit  of  the 


Mission  Work  and  How  Carried  On  205 


chicken  we  may  have  left  from  dinner.  Half  a dozen 
others  are  with  him,  or  he  is  calling  to  them  from 
a distance.  His  shrill  bark  is  not  conducive  to  sleep. 
The  dogs  in  the  village — lean,  cross,  scabby  dogs — 
seem  to  think  something  unusual  has  happened,  and 
they  keep  up  a constant  barking.  Not  far  away  is  a 
village  temple,  and  the  priests  and  their  sons  are  sing- 
ing from  the  sacred  books.  The  music  is  in  a high  key, 
and  sounds  like  the  song  of  the  plowboys.  Is  it  the 
singing  of  priests  or  the  singing  of  children  in  the 
Sunday-school  ? Are  we  in  India  or  America  ? Some- 
times it  seems  like  one,  and  sometimes  like  the  other, 
and  we  awake  with  the  sun  shining  through  the  open- 
ing of  our  tent.  The  cook  prepares  us  a little  break- 
fast, and  we  are  ready  for  the  work  we  came  to  do. 
We  hail  a passer-by,  and  inquire  for  the  head  man  in 
the  village.  He  tells  us  his  name,  and  shows  us  where 
he  lives.  We  go  and  call  on  him.  If  he  is  a friendly 
man ; i.  e.,  friendly  to  us,  he  will  come  out  and  put  his 
hands  together,  raise  them  to  his  forehead,  and  make 
a low  bow.  Then  he  brings  out  a piece  of  grass  mat- 
ting, and  asks  us  to  sit  down.  The  veranda  on  the 
outside  is  the  reception-room  for  all  men  who  are  not 
members  of  the  family.  His  name  may  be  Hori  Pra- 
sad Das.  We  talk  to  him  of  his  crops,  cows,  and  chil- 
dren, and  a few  things  of  this  nature,  and  then  perhaps 
ask  him  if  he  would  like  to  hear  some  good  news.  He 
always  likes  to  hear  good  news,  and  we  tell  him  the 
best  news  ever  told  the  world : 

“ As  you  have  sacred  books,  so  do  we ; and  our 
book  tells  us  of  God  and  how  he  created  man,  and  how 


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India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


man  by  sin  went  far  away  from  God.  It  tells  us  of 
God’s  great  interest  in  man,  and  how  he  tried  to  bring 
man  back  to  him  by  sending  his  Son  into  the  world, 
who  took  our  nature,  and  was  tried  and  tempted  as  we 
are,  but  did  not  sin.  He  had  compassion  for  the  sin- 
ful and  suffering,  and  did  all  he  could  to  help  them. 
He  gave  the  world  the  best  teaching  it  has  ever  re- 
ceived, and  the  people  who  live  the  nearest  these  teach- 
ings are  the  best  and  happiest.  If  all  would  accept  him 
and  live  by  his  teachings,  it  would  turn  our  sorrowful 
world  into  a heaven.  At  last  he  was  sacrificed  as  an 
offering  for  sin,  and  he  arose  from  the  grave,  and 
now  lives  to  help  all  who  want  to  come  to  him  and 
follow  after  him.  He  is  the  great  Teacher,  and  he 
wants  us  all  to  become  his  disciples.”  We  talk  like  this 
to  Hori  Babu,  and  while  we  are  talking  many  of  his 
neighbors  gather  in  his  yard,  and  sit  down  upon  their 
heels  to  listen.  We  may  ask  him  if  he  would  not  like 
to  accept  this  Teacher  as  his  teacher.  He  would  tell  us, 
probably,  “ What  you  say  is  very  good,  and  those  are 
certainly  good  teachings  which  Christ  taught;  but  if  I 
should  accept  them  and  become  a Christian,  my  land- 
lord would  dispossess  me,  and  my  wife  would  disown 
me,  and  my  children  would  not  call  me  father,  and  my 
people  would  cast  me  out.”  It  is  a difficult  thing  for 
poor  Hori,  and  yet  some  accept;  not  at  first,  but  after 
repeated  efforts.  Then  a little  school  is  started  in  his 
village,  and  a Christian  man  is  put  in  it,  and  they  work 
with  Hori’s  family  and  neighbors  until  a church  grows 
out  of  that  small  beginning.  In  this  way  little  lights 
are  being  kindled  here  and  there,  and  they  are  grow- 


Mission  Work  and  How  Carried  On  207 


in g larger,  and  penetrating  farther  into  the  darkness 
around.  Just  when  the  rays  from  thousands  of  centers 
shall  cross  each  other,  and  all  India  be  enveloped  in  the 
“ Light  of  the  world,”  none  of  us  knows ; but  the  time 
is  surely  coming,  and  may  be  much  nearer  than  even 
the  most  sanguine  of  us  think.  May  God  hasten  the 
day! 


o 


CHAPTER  XVII 


The  Prospect  for  Success 

A RETURNED  missionary  lady  was  asked  to 
prepare  a paper  in  one  of  the  recent  May 
anniversaries  in  London,  on  the  subject  of 
“ Discouragements  in  Mission  Work  in  In- 
dia.” She  went  on  the  platform,  announced  her  sub- 
ject, and  simply  said  “ There  are  none,”  and  sat  down. 
There  are  some,  yea,  many  obstacles;  and  coming 
events  so  cast  their  shadows  before,  that  it  sometimes 
seems  darker  than  it  really  is.  But  the  prospects  are  as 
good  as  the  promises  of  God.  Let  us  glance  at  a few 
of  the  hopeful  signs  : 

The  opposition  of  the  Brahmins  is  encouraging. 
There  was  a time  when  they  ignored  missionary  ef- 
forts, or  smiled  at  their  futile  attempts.  They  were 
like  men  in  a fortress  gray  with  age,  and  strong,  who 
were  watching  a few  pygmies  trying  to  batter  down 
the  walls.  They  said,  like  the  Samaritans  who  saw 
the  Jews  trying  to  rebuild  the  walls  of  Jerusalem, 
“ What  do  these  feeble  Jews?  ” They  said,  “ Hindu- 
ism is  old,  and  strongly  entrenched  in  the  lives  and 
customs  of  our  people,  and  we  are  a conservative  na- 
tion ; therefore,  what  will  the  efforts  of  these  few 
missionaries  amount  to?”  But  their  indifference  has 
turned  into  opposition  in  some  places,  and  that  of  the 
most  bitter  kind. 


208 


The  Prospect  for  Success 


209 


Only  a few  years  ago  the  Madras  Hindu  Tract  So- 
ciety was  organized  to  counteract  the  influence  of 
Christian  tracts.  It  was  not  the  purpose  of  this  society 
so  much  to  set  forth  the  excellences  of  the  Hindu  re- 
ligion, as  it  was  to  oppose  the  Christian  religion.  Not 
very  long  ago,  in  the  city  of  Benares,  a great  meeting 
of  the  Brahmins  and  pundits  was  called  for  the  pur- 
pose of  devising  ways  and  means  to  stop  the  progress 
of  Christianity.  It  was  first  a meeting  of  fasting  and 
prayer,  and  then  they  discussed  their  plans.  They  said, 
“ ‘ These  that  have  turned  the  world  upside  down  are 
come  hither  also.’  Their  women  enter  our  homes,  and 
are  turning  away  the  hearts  of  our  wives,  and  the 
teachers  in  the  schools  are  perverting  the  minds  of 
our  children,  and  our  ears  are  filled  with  their  bazaar 
preaching,  and  their  books  and  tracts  are  going  as 
silent  messengers  into  our  homes.  Unless  we  adopt 
their  methods,  we  shall  be  left  behind  in  the  race.”  So 
they  issue  and  distribute  their  tracts,  and  preach  in  the 
bazaars  against  Christianity,  and  often  try  to  disturb 
us  in  our  preaching.  They  forget  that  it  is  the  living 
Christ  and  not  methods  which  is  the  source  of  success. 
They  may  try  to  attach  Christian  methods  to  a lifeless 
religion,  but  they  cannot  restore  it  to  life. 

The  people  are  becoming  unsettled  religiously.  They 
have  the  Brahmo-Somaj,  the  aim  of  which  is  to  reform 
Hinduism;  and  the  Arya-Somaj,  which  promises  to 
restore  to  the  people  primitive  Hinduism.  Theosophy 
and  sundry  isms  find  here  a hotbed  in  which  to  grow. 
They  want  something  they  haven’t  got,  and  are  grasp- 
ing for  it  here  and  there. 


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India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


There  is  a feeling  on  the  part  of  many  of  the  peo- 
ple that  Hinduism  is  to  die,  and  that  Christianity  is  to 
be  the  religion  of  the  country.  Often  in  the  bazaar 
while  preaching  we  hear  this  confession,  “ Christianity 
is  to  be  the  religion  after  a time.”  “ Why,  then,  will 
you  not  accept  it?”  “We  cannot,”  they  say,  “come 
alone,  but  when  all  the  rest  of  the  villages  get  ready  to 
come  then  we  will  come.” 

The  more  thoughtful  ones  know  that  there  is  no 
power  in  Hinduism  to  elevate  the  people  or  to  make 
them  better.  I was  once  in  my  cold-season  work  visit- 
ing a large  village,  at  the  head  of  which  was  a very  in- 
telligent man.  In  the  course  of  a conversation  with 
him,  I said,  “ Babu,  I want  to  ask  you  a few  questions 
about  the  Hindu  religion.” 

“ Very  well,”  he  said,  “ ask  anything  you  wish.” 

“ Are  your  people  more  truthful  than  they  were 
many  hundreds  of  years  ago?  ” 

He  replied,  “ No,  I do  not  think  they  are  truth- 
ful. In  fact,  you  can  hardly  find  a really  truthful  man. 
We  have  a proverb  that  says,  ‘ If  a man  will  not  lie, 
neither  shall  he  eat.’  ” 

“ Are  your  people  more  honest  and  upright  in  their 
dealings  than  they  were  a thousand  years  ago?” 

“ I do  not  think  they  are  as  much  so.  You  can 
hardly  find  a man  who  will  not  take  advantage  in  a 
deal,”  he  replied. 

“ Are  your  people  more  chaste  and  virtuous?  ” 

“ There  are  very  few  pure-minded  people.” 

“ How  long  has  Hinduism  prevailed  in  this  coun- 
try ? ” I asked. 


The  Prospect  for  Success 


211 


“ Three  thousand  years  or  more,”  he  replied. 

“ If  you  have  had  Hinduism  for  so  many  years,  and 
your  people  are  getting  no  better,  but,  as  you  confess, 
worse,  when  are  they  to  be  made  better  by  Hinduism?  ” 
He  said : “ We  have  no  hope  for  our  people  in  this 
age.  Our  sacred  books  tell  us  of  an  age  of  truth,  and 
when  that  comes  we  shall  be  made  better.” 

It  gave  me  great  satisfaction  to  say  to  him,  “ The  age 
of  truth  is  already  here.  When  Christ  came  and  be- 
gan his  great  work,  he  said,  ‘ I am  the  way,  the 
truth,  and  the  life;  no  man  cometh  unto  the  Father 
but  by  me.’  The  age  of  truth  that  you  have  been  look- 
ing for  is  found  in  Christ,  and  all  that  you  hope  from 
that  age  is  found  in  him.” 

Caste  is  the  great  strength  of  Hinduism,  and  those 
rules  are  evidently  weakening.  Caste  is  a chain  which 
was  forged  by  the  higher  classes  to  be  put  upon  the 
necks  of  the  lower  classes.  They  are  finding  out  that 
the  chain  forged  for  the  necks  of  others  is  a most  gall- 
ing chain  upon  their  own  necks,  and  many  of  the  more 
thoughtful  ones  would  be  more  than  glad  to  have  it 
broken. 

I was  once  detained  for  two  days  in  company  with  a 
native  gentleman  in  a small  canal  boat,  waiting  for  the 
Calcutta  steamer.  I had  with  me  my  cook  and  a basket 
of  food,  and  he  had  a cook  with  him  and  some  native 
foods.  Our  meals  were  prepared  separately,  but  when 
brought  in  we  each  shared  freely  the  food  of  the  other. 
During  these  tedious  two  days  we  became  very  commu- 
nicative, and  he  told  me  freely  of  his  family  affairs, 
which  were,  briefly,  something  like  this:  He  had  five 


212 


India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


daughters  and  one  son,  and  belonged  to  the  caste  next 
below  the  Brahmins.  The  marrying  of  his  daughters 
to  suitable  men  in  his  caste  had  cost  him  all  he  had 
earned  or  could  ever  hope  to  earn,  though  he  was  get- 
ting a splendid  salary  from  the  government.  The  caste 
rules  of  the  Hindus  compelled  him  to  get  husbands  for1' 
his  daughters  in  the  same  caste,  and  these  husbands 
brought  a big  price.  If  he  could  go  outside  his  caste, 
he  would  have  no  difficulty ; but  as  it  was,  he  was  bound 
hand  and  foot.  He  denounced  the  system  as  galling 
and  iniquitous.  The  fact  that  he  freely  ate  with  me 
showed  how  little  he  regarded  it.  At  length  the 
steamer  came  along,  and  we  found  on  board  a native 
deputy  magistrate  from  Balasore.  This  was  early  in 
the  morning  before  we  had  eaten  our  morning  meal. 

I told  my  man  to  prepare  me  some  tea  and  toast,  and 
then  turned  and  asked  these  two  native  gentlemen  if 
they  would  not  allow  me  to  have  some  toast  prepared 
for  them.  Of  course  they  refused.  I did  not  expose  the 
man  who  had  been  freely  eating  my  bread  the  day  be- 
fore. Then  he  was  with  me,  and  now  he  was  with  his 
fellow-caste  man.  We  kept  in  this  boat  until  we  got 
to  the  end  of  the  canal  at  Gewakallie.  As  the  boat 
was  not  going  up  until  morning,  the  deputy  magistrate 
and  I hired  a rowboat  to  take  us  across  to  Diamond 
Harbor,  where  we  could  get  the  train  for  Calcutta. 
This  was  a ride  of  several  miles,  and  on  the  way  sup- 
per-time came,  and  each  of  us  brought  out  our  lunch- 
baskets.  Now  the  gentleman  who  so  graciously  re- 
fused my  offer  of  food  in  the  morning  was  ready  to 
share  with  me  the  contents  of  my  basket,  while  I 


The  Prospect  for  Success 


213 


helped  him  eat  his  native  sweets.  In  the  presence  of 
each  other  neither  of  these  native  gentlemen  would 
touch  my  food,  but  away  from  each  other  both  would. 
So  it  is.  Thousands  of  the  educated  people  despise 
caste,  and  yet  they  are  held  to  its  rules  for  fear  of  each 
other. 

I called  once  on  a native  civil  surgeon,  who  was  act- 
ing for  the  time  being  for  our  European  civil  surgeon 
of  Balasore.  I said,  “ I suppose,  doctor,  you  com- 
pleted your  medical  studies  in  Europe.”  He  replied, 
“ No ; fool  that  I was,  I did  not  go  to  England.  I 
had  a great  desire  to,  but  our  caste  rules  prevented  it, 
and  I observed  them  to  my  great  detriment.  I have 
put  before  me  an  insurmountable  barrier  to  any  fur- 
ther promotion.  I have  wished  a hundred  times  I had 
gone  in  spite  of  them ; in  fact,  it  is  a daily  cause  of  re- 
gret.” When  such  a feeling  becomes  general,  caste 
will  go,  just  as  their  houses  go  after  they  are  all  eaten 
up  with  white  ants.  Only  a shell  remains,  which  is 
ready  to  crumble  to  pieces. 

Our  army  of  native  helpers  is  a most  encouraging 
feature  in  the  work.  There  was  a time  in  the  history 
of  every  mission  when  there  were  no  native  workers, 
and  how  the  hearts  of  the  missionaries  leaped  for  joy 
when  they  got  perhaps  only  one  or  two,  and  these  of 
an  indifferent  quality ; but  those  days  are  past.  Every 
mission  has  some,  and  many  missions  many  of  these. 
Some  of  them  are  educated,  talented  men,  and  many 
of  them  are  men  of  zeal  and  deep  piety,  and  would  be 
an  honor  to  any  pulpit  in  any  country.  One  of  our 
own  native  preachers,  Suchied  Ananda  Rai,  I would 


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India  and  Daily  Life  in  Bengal 


be  proud  to  put  in  any  pulpit  in  America  if  he  could 
use  English  as  well  as  he  can  Bengali.  Chundra  Lela 
also  is  an  illustrious  example  of  what  Christianity  can 
do  for  the  race.  In  another  chapter  I have  spoken 
more  at  length  on  the  different  branches  of  Christian 
work  carried  on  through  the  help  of  these  native 
agencies.  Our  native  Christians  are  pushing  them- 
selves to  the  front,  and  it  is  only  a question  of  time 
when  they  will  exert  a great  influence  in  the  country. 
The  Hindu  must  be  converted,  or  make  way  for  the 
superior  class,  which  is  by  the  power  of  the  gospel 
being  raised  up  out  of  their  midst. 


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India  and  daily  life  in  Bengal, 

Princeton  Theological  Semina 


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